Reduction of implant infection via tunable stimulation of localized adaptive immune response

ABSTRACT

Compositions, implantation devices and methods for stimulating an immune response to infection are discussed. In some examples, the compositions, implantation devices or methods of regulating the amplification of an adaptive immune response to infection involves use of one or more particles locally at a surgical or implant site to control bacterial infections without detrimental systemic side-effects. In some examples, the particles can be coated or layered onto the surface of an implantable device or material. In other examples, the particles can be injected into the site of implantation.

This application claims benefit of the priority filing date of U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/539,282, filed Sep. 26, 2011,the contents of which are specifically incorporated herein in theirentirety.

BACKGROUND

Implanted medical devices or biomaterials can present microenvironmentsthat are conducive to bacterial colonization or infection. Suchinfections can require repetitive hospital visits or can even requireremoval or replacement of the implanted device or material. For example,approximately 1 million inguinal and 20,000 ventral herniorrhaphies areperformed yearly in the United States. It is estimated thatapproximately 3 to 8 percent of patients who undergo such surgerydevelop post-operative infections. These types of infections can causecomplications that require longer post-surgery care and escalate healthcare costs. It has been estimated that surgical site infections haveincreased hospital stays by approximately 7 days with costs increasingfrom $3,000 to $30,000. Overall surgical implant infections costs havebeen credited with increasing direct medical costs by more than $3billion annually in the US. In addition to the financial burden causedby repetitive implant surgery and longer inpatient hospital stays,infections can be fatal or near fatal to a significant portion ofpatients.

At least some degree of bacterial entry into a surgical site is nearlyunavoidable at the time of surgery. Bacteria can be introduced insurgeries that include the implantation of medical devices and materialsas well as surgeries that do not. However, the presence of an implantcan complicate the clearance of bacteria from the surgical site.Bacteria introduced at the time of implantation can contact the implant,bind to and colonize the implant surface. If bacterial colonizationoccurs on the surface of the implant, traditional means of treatmentincluding the use of systemic antibiotics, are largely unsuccessful intreating the infection. Because of the difficulty of clearing bacteriathat have populated the implant surface, it is common for surgeons tocompletely remove the implant, place patients on long term systemicantibiotics to clear the infection, and re-implant the medical device.

Currently available procedures for treating infections typically involveadministration of antibiotics. Others such as Gristina et al. (U.S. Pat.No. 5,292,513) disclose methods for nonspecific cellular immunestimulation. Ziegler et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 7,906,132) discloseanti-infectious, biocompatible titanium coating for implants, andmethods for the production thereof. O'Hagan et al. U.S. Pat. No.7,597,908 discloses use of micro-particles with adsorbed antigen tostimulate immune responses towards the specific antigen at a systemiclevel.

SUMMARY

The present inventors have recognized, among other things, that areduction or elimination of implant-related bacterial infections can beachieved by use of micro- and nano-sized particles that promote aregulated and localized immune response to bacteria.

One aspect of the invention is a composition that includes particleshaving a diameter of about 1.0 nm to about 100 μm. Such a compositioncan be administered, for example, to a localized site in an animal forreducing microbial infection at the site in the animal. The compositioncan also be used to coat, or be administered with, an implant orimplantation device.

Another aspect of the invention is an implant or implantation devicethat includes one or more surfaces configured for implantation into ananimal, and a coating on the one or more surfaces, where the coatingincludes a composition having particles with a diameter of about 1.0 nmto about 100 μm.

Another aspect of the invention is a method of reducing a microbialinfection at a site in an animal in need thereof that includes locallyadministering to the site an effective amount of a composition thatincludes particles having a diameter of about 1.0 nm to about 100 μm, tothereby reduce microbial infection at the site in the animal.

In some embodiments, the compositions, the coatings or the particles areadapted or configured to biodegrade after activating macrophages at thesite without substantial activation of neutrophils.

Such compositions, methods, implants or implantation devices can reducebacterial titer at the site of administration by at least 30%, or atleast 40%, or at least 50%, or at least 60%, or at least 70%, or atleast 80%, or at least 90%, or at least 95%.

A variety of materials can be used in the particles. For example, theparticles in the composition can include any of the materials describedherein such as metal, silica, alumina, titania, glass, ceramic,polystyrene, polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, melamine, polylactide,magnetic material, radioactive material, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the particles are adapted or configured foradhesion to bacteria. For example, a portion of the particles in acomposition or coating can be adapted or configured for adhesion tobacteria. In some embodiments, at least about 50%, or at least about60%, at least about 70%, or at least about 80%, at least about 90%, orat least about 95% of the particles in a composition or coating can beadapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria.

Particles in the compositions or coatings can have a distribution ofsizes. For example, a portion of the particles in a composition orcoating can be of a selected diameter size range. In some embodiments,at least about 50%, or at least about 60%, at least about 70%, or atleast about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% of theparticles in a composition or coating can have a diameter falling in therange of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm.

Particles in the compositions or coatings can also have a variety ofshapes. For example, a portion of the particles in a composition orcoating can have a shape that is substantially smooth, spherical,square, rectangular, planar, cuboidal, or a combination thereof. In someembodiments, at least about 50%, or at least about 60%, at least about70%, or at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% ofthe particles can have a shape that is substantially smooth, spherical,square, rectangular, planar, cuboidal, or a combination thereof.

Particles in the compositions or coatings can also have a surface thatis rough. For example, a portion of the particles in a composition orcoating can have an average surface roughness greater than 0.1 or 0.2microns. In some embodiments, at least about 50%, or at least about 60%,at least about 70%, or at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or atleast about 95% of the particles can have an average surface roughnessgreater than 0.05 microns, 0.1 microns, 0.2 microns, 0.3 microns, or 0.4microns.

The composition can coat or be administered with an implant orimplantation device. Such an implant or implantation device can includea sponge, bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh, valve,pacemaker, conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptive device,central line, pessary, tube, drain, trochar, plug, cerebrospinal fluiddrain, tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw,orthopedic appliance, bandage, suture or any other implantable medicaldevice.

The compositions can coat or be administered with an implant orimplantation device into a variety of sites within an animal. Forexample, the implant or implantation device can be configured forimplantation into a bone, a blood vessel, a hernia, a breast, a bladder,an anus, a vagina, or a penis. Alternatively, the composition can beadministered in sites that contain or do not contain an implant orimplantation device. For example, the composition can be administered insites such as a bone, a blood vessel, a hernia, a breast, a bladder, ananus, a vagina, or a penis.

Implants or implantation devices can be coated with one or more layersof a particle composition. In some embodiments, one or more layers areconfigured to peel-off over a time period of about 1 hour to about 1week after the implant or implantation device is administered.

The compositions and coatings can also include a variety of otheragents. For example, the compositions and coatings can also include ananti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, an anti-inflammatory agent,a chemotherapeutic agent, a cytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, apeptide, a recombinant DNA, or a combination thereof. Other agents thatcan be included in the compositions and coatings are further describedherein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1A-1F shows microscopic images of RAW 264.7 cells, some of whichwere incubated with particles at different densities. FIGS. 1A & 1B showimages of control cells. FIG. 1C shows images of cells incubated with 10μm particles, for 24 hours, at a density of 2.5×10⁵ particles/cm². FIG.1D shows images of cells incubated with 10 μm particles, for 24 hours,at a density of 5.0×10⁵ particles/cm². FIG. 1E shows images of cellsincubated with 10 μm particles, for 24 hours, at a density of 7.5×10⁵particles/cm². FIG. 1F shows images of cells incubated with 10 μmparticles, for 24 hours, at a density of 10.0×10⁵ particles/cm².

FIG. 2 shows the expression of MIP-3α by Western blot analysis. Lane 1shows a protein molecular weight marker. Lane 2 shows a negativecontrol, where the sample was taken from cells incubated in the absenceof particles. Lanes 3-6 show the results from samples taken from cellsincubated with 0.1 μm particles. In lane 3, cells were incubated for 24hours with particles at a density of 2.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 4,cells were incubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 5.5×10⁵particles/cm². In lane 5, cells were incubated for 24 hours withparticles at a density of 7.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 6, cells wereincubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 1.0×10⁶particles/cm². Lanes 7-10 show the results from samples taken from cellsincubated with 0.5 μm particles. In lane 7, cells were incubated for 24hours with particles at a density of 2.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 8,cells were incubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 5.5×10⁵particles/cm². In lane 9, cells were incubated for 24 hours withparticles at a density of 7.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 10, cells wereincubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 1.0×10⁶particles/cm². Lanes 11-14 show the results from samples taken fromcells incubated with 1.0 μm particles. In lane 11, cells were incubatedfor 24 hours with particles at a density of 2.5×10⁵ particles/cm². Inlane 12, cells were incubated for 24 hours with particles at a densityof 5.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 13, cells were incubated for 24 hourswith particles at a density of 7.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 14, cellswere incubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 1.0×10⁶particles/cm².

FIG. 3 shows the expression of CXCL-10 by Western blot analysis. Theprotein molecular weight marker can be shown on the far left side. Lane1 shows a negative control, where the sample was taken from cellsincubated in the absence of particles. In lanes 2-4, cells wereincubated for 15 hours with 0.1 μm particles prior to Western blot. Inlanes 5-7, cells were incubated for 15 hours with 0.5 μm particles priorto Western blot. In lanes 8-10, cells were incubated for 15 hours with1.0 μm particles. In lanes 2, 5, and 8, cells were transiently culturedwith particles for a total of 24 hours. In lanes 3, 6, and 9, cells weretransiently cultured with particles for 48 hours. In lanes 4, 7, and 10,cells were transiently cultured with particles for 72 hours. In lanes11-13, cells were incubated with particles for 72 hours. In lane 11, theparticle size was 0.1 μm, 0.5 μm in lane 12, and 1.0 μm in lane 13.

FIG. 4 shows the expression of CCL-22 by Western blot analysis. Lane 1shows a protein molecular weight marker. Lane 2 shows a negativecontrol, where prior to analysis, the sample was taken from cellsincubated in the absence of particles. Lanes 3-6 show the results fromsamples taken from cells incubated with 0.1 μm particles. In lane 3,cells were incubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 2.5×10⁵particles/cm², in lane 4 at a density of 5.5×10⁵ particles/cm², and inlane 5 at a density of 7.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 6, cells wereincubated for 24 hours with particles at a density of 1.0×10⁶particles/cm². Lanes 7-10 show the results from samples taken from cellsincubated with 0.5 μm particles. In lane 7, cells were incubated for 24hours with particles at a density of 2.5×10⁵ particles/cm², in lane 8 ata density of 5.5×10⁵ particles/cm², and in lane 9 at a density of7.5×10⁵ particles/cm². In lane 10, cells were incubated for 24 hourswith particles at a density of 1.0×10⁶ particles/cm². Lanes 11-14 showthe results from samples taken from cells incubated with 1.0 μmparticles. In lane 11, cells were incubated for 24 hours with particlesat a density of 2.5×10⁵ particles/cm², in lane 12 at a density of5.5×10⁵ particles/cm², and in lane 13 at a density of 7.5×10⁵particles/cm². In lane 14, cells were incubated for 24 hours withparticles at a density of 1.0×10⁶ particles/cm².

FIG. 5 shows the expression of MIP-1α in pg/ml by ELISA. In FIGS. 5A-C,the cells were exposed to particles for twelve hours. In FIG. 5A theparticle size was 0.1 μm, 0.5 μm in FIG. 5B, and 1.0 μm in FIG. 5C. InFIG. 5D, the cells were continuously incubated with particles, the sizesbeing 0.1 μm, 0.5 μm, and 1.0 μm, as shown.

FIG. 6 shows the expression of MIP-3α in pg/ml by ELISA. In FIGS. 6A-C,the cells were exposed to particles for twelve hours. In FIG. 6A theparticle size was 0.1 μm, 0.5 μm in FIG. 6B, and 1.0 μm in FIG. 6C. InFIG. 6D, the cells were continuously incubated with particles, the sizesbeing 0.1 μm, 0.5 μm, and 1.0 μm, as shown.

FIG. 7 shows the impact of particles on cell metabolism. In FIG. 7A,cells were incubated with particles for 15 hours. In FIG. 7B, cells wereincubated with particles for 72 hours. In both, results are shown forthe metabolic bioanalysis of glucose, glutamine and lactose, at 0, 24,48, and 72 hours.

FIG. 8 shows images of rat quadriceps slices with phagocytosedmicroparticles. FIG. 8A shows the images of control rat quadricepsslices, taken from animals that have been injected with 50 μl of PBS.FIGS. 8B-D show rat quadriceps slices taken from animals that had beeninjected with 50 μl f 1.0 μm particles suspended in PBS at aconcentration of 25 mg/ml.

FIG. 9 shows expression of MIP-1α (pg/ml) in rat blood, where animalshad been injected with 50 μl of evans blue, 50 μl of PBS, a needle prickonly, or 50 μl of 1.0 μm particles suspended in PBS at a concentrationof 25 mg/ml.

FIG. 10 shows expression of MIP-3α (pg/ml) in rat blood, where animalshad been injected with evans blue, PBS, a needle prick only, or 50 μl of1.0 μm particles suspended in PBS at a concentration of 25 mg/ml.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Although methods for battling infections are widely used, substantialnumbers of implant-related bacterial infections persist. Existingtechnologies fail to address the underlying impairment of the local cellmediated immune response. The inventors have noted that clearance ofviable bacteria from an infected surgical implant is most effective whena viable immune response occurs. Such clearance is important fordefeating infection even when antimicrobials are also administered.Accordingly, patients, including immune-compromised individuals, remainexceedingly difficult to treat successfully.

Applicants have solved this problem by providing methods, implants andcompositions that induce a particle-mediated immune response effectiveagainst localized bacterial infections. Such methods, implants andcompositions can also reduce or minimize deleterious side effects ofimplantation procedures. Moreover, such a particle-mediated immuneresponse can be regulated and is tunable through the practice of themethods described herein. Thus, the inventors have developedcompositions, implants and methods to up-regulate a cell mediated immuneresponse at a site of infection or at a surgical implant site in asubject that reduces bacterial adherence to an implant surface and byimproving bacterial phagocytosis and clearance from sites of infectionwithout impairing other aspects of a normal healing response.

DEFINITIONS

As described herein, a particle-mediated immune response refers to asubject's immune response that is initiated, amplified, minimized, orotherwise altered by the presence of a micro-particle or nano-particle.

As described herein, an innate immune response refers to the immuneresponse of subjects to innately prevent, eradicate or reduce pathogenicinfections. Such an innate immune response is mediated by granulocytes,leukocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mononuclear phagocytes, neutrophils,and the like. Such cells, particularly neutrophils and macrophages, areeffective during innate antibacterial defense because they provide adiverse array of highly specialized cellular functions, includingphagocytic uptake of the bacterium, generation of phagolysosomes,production of reactive oxygen species, activation of inducible nitricoxide synthase (iNOS), and release of antimicrobial peptides (e.g.cathelicidins, defensins) and granule proteases (e.g. elastase,cathepsin). However, some of these cells and functions are moreeffective at reducing localized infections and promoting healing thanothers. For example, neutrophils can emigrate to a site or injury orinfection, and release cytotoxic compounds, including oxidants,proteases and cytokines. Although neutrophils are important in fightinginfection, they can promote tissue damage. For example, neutrophils cancause significant damage at healthy tissue sites by releasing toxicsubstances at a vascular wall or uninjured tissue.

As described herein, the term macrophage generally means a phagocyticcell that plays a role in innate as well as the adaptive immuneresponse. Macrophages phagocytose debris, foreign substances, andpathogens, and stimulate other cells involved in an immune response. Theterm macrophage, as used herein, covers not only neutrophils, but alsoneutrophil-like cells.

As described herein, the term neutrophil generally means a white bloodcell that makes up part of the innate immune system. Neutrophilstypically have segmented nuclei, containing about 2-5 lobes. Neutrophilsfrequently migrate to the site of an injury within minutes followingtrauma. The term neutrophils, as used herein, covers not onlyneutrophils, but also neutrophil-like cells.

As described herein, an activated macrophage is generally a macrophagethat undergoes a functional, biochemical or morphological change,including but not limited to membrane ruffling, peroxide elaboration,increased expression of antigens, increased secretion of plasminogen, ora combination of any of these.

As described herein, an effective amount generally means an amount whichprovides the desired local or systemic effect, e.g., effective toameliorate undesirable effects of infection or inflammation, includingmodulation of activation of macrophages, etc. For example, an effectiveamount is an amount sufficient to effectuate a beneficial or desiredclinical result. An effective amount can be provided all at once in asingle administration or in fractional amounts that provide theeffective amount in several administrations. The precise determinationof what would be considered an effective amount may be based on factorsindividual to each subject, including their size, age, injury, diseaseor infection being treated, and amount of time since the injury occurredor disease or infection began. One skilled in the art will be able todetermine the effective amount for a given subject based on theseconsiderations which are routine in the art.

As described herein, a particle refers to a general designation for amaterial that can create a good microclimate for a biologically activesubstance incorporated therein such that the material has a suitablebioactivity. As used herein, the term particle is used to designate aparticle with an average diameter within the range of about 1 μm toabout 100 μm. As used herein, the term nanoparticle is used to designatea particle with an average diameter within the range of about 50 nm toabout 1000 nm.

The terms treating, treatment and the like are used herein to generallymean obtaining a desired pharmacological and/or physiological effect.The effect may be prophylactic in terms of preventing or partiallypreventing a disease, symptom or condition thereof and/or may betherapeutic in terms of a partial or complete cure of a disease,condition, symptom or adverse effect attributed to the disease, i.e.,infection. As such, the term treatment as used herein covers anytreatment of a disease in a mammal, particularly a human, and includes:preventing the disease from occurring in a subject which may bepredisposed to the disease but has not yet been diagnosed with thedisease; inhibiting the disease, such as by arresting its development;or relieving the disease, such as by mitigating or ameliorating thedisease and/or its symptoms or conditions. As used herein, treating ortreatment of a disease involves treating a patient's infection.

Microbial pathogens include a large and diverse group of organismscapable of infecting animals and plants, such as bacteria, protozoa,fungi, nematodes, and viruses. Initiation of an infection occurs whenthe infecting organism is pathogenic, and the host is susceptible topathogenic invasion. After establishing contact with susceptible cellsor tissues of the host, the pathogen acquires nutrients from its host,facilitating its own survival. During the infection process the pathogenactivates a cascade of molecular, biochemical, and physiologicalprocesses, the result of which is the release of substances detrimentalto the host and the development of disease (See, e.g., ScientificAmerican Medicine, W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1995; Agrios, G.N., Plant Pathology, Academic Press, 1988 Finlay B B, Falkow S. Commonthemes in microbial pathogenicity revisited. Microbiol. Mol Biol Rev.1997 June; 61(2):136-69.). The pathogenic effects of microbes areproduced in a variety of ways. The term pathogen includes both obligateand opportunistic organisms including bacteria, protozoa, fungi,nematodes, viruses, and other factors which may cause infective and/orinflammatory responses. In one embodiment, the invention is directed totreating infectivity or virulence of pathogens. Accordingly, in oneembodiment, the instant invention pertains to methods of reducing theinfectivity or virulence of a pathogen.

As used herein, the term biodegradable means that the composition, afteradministration, is dissolved, chemically degraded, enzymaticallydegraded or metabolized in a physiological environment (e.g., the bodyof an animal) to form endogenic substances. For example, polymers thatmake up a biodegradable particle or are otherwise present in acomposition can be dissolved or metabolized to yield glucose. Thebiodegradability can be examined through injection or otheradministration of microparticles, for example subcutaneously orintramuscularly, and histological examination of the tissue as afunction of time. The term biodegradable polymer refers to a material,which is degraded in the biological environment of the cell or subjectin which it is found. In one embodiment, the biodegradable polymer canbe included in the composition. The included biodegradable polymer canundergo degradation, wherein acidic products, or in another embodiment,basic products are released. The biodegradability can be determined orexamined through incubation with a suitable enzyme, for examplealpha-amylase, in vitro. In one embodiment, bio-degradation involves thedegradation of the polymer into its component subunits, via, forexample, digestion, by a biochemical process. In one embodiment,biodegradation may involve cleavage of bonds (whether covalent orotherwise) in the polymer backbone. In one embodiment, biodegradationmay involve cleavage of a bond (whether covalent or otherwise) internalto a side-chain or one that connects a side chain to the polymerbackbone.

The term coating as used herein can refer to the physical attachment ofa particle to an implantable device, or in another embodiment, theassociation of a coating with an implantable device. The term coatingcan also refer to a type of composition that facilitates attachment orassociation of a particle to an implantable device. Such a coating caninclude particles. Thus, the application of a composition can be in theform of a coating. The coating can be in a pattern, or on specificregions of an implantable device to suit a particular purpose. Theapplication of a coating can be random. The coating can include a film,containing a particle. The term coating applies not only to a surfacecoating of an implantable device, but is to be understood asencompassing embedding and/or impregnating the implantable device, inwhole, or in some embodiments, in part, with the particles describedherein. In some embodiments, the embedding and/or impregnating thecomposition may be according to a desired pattern and/or design, to suita particular purpose or application. In some embodiments, multiplecoatings may be impregnated or embedded in the implantable device. Insome embodiments, the coating is applied to the surface of animplantable device. The coating may be applied according to a particularpattern or design, which may be the same, or in another embodiment,different than the patterning of a first coating. For example, thecoating can vary in terms of the percent by weight, or in someembodiments, in terms of the composition of the coating in differentparts of an implantable device. In an embodiment, bacteria can adhere tothe coating or to particles in the coating.

The coating can include a single layer, or multiple layers. The coatingcan be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 ormore layers. A layer can be of any thickness, such as 0.05-2.0Angstroms. The coating can range from 0.05 Angstroms to 3 millimeters ormore. When the coating can include multiple layers, where one or morelayers can be configured to peel-off after administration. The termpeel-off indicates that the coating can biodegrade, as discussed above,in a uniform or non-uniform manner. In an embodiment, the one or morelayers can peel-off from a time of about 1 hour to about 1 week. The oneor more layer can peel off over a time period of about more than amonth, 3 weeks, 2 weeks, 1 week, 144 hours, 120 hours, 96 hours, 72hours, 48 hours, 24 hours, 12 hours, 6 hours, 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours,2 hours, 1 hour, less than 1 hour, or immediately upon administration.In another embodiment, the coating can biodegrade in a uniform manner.The biodegradation can permit a particle to be released from a timeperiod of about 1 hour to about 1 week. A particle can be released overa time period of about more than a month, 3 weeks, 2 weeks, 1 week, 144hours, 120 hours, 96 hours, 72 hours, 48 hours, 24 hours, 12 hours, 6hours, 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour, less than 1 hour, orimmediately upon administration.

Particle Compositions and Implants

One aspect of the invention is a composition comprising particles havinga diameter of about 1.0 nm to about 100 μm, to thereby reduce microbialinfection at the site in the animal. The particles in the compositioncan inhibit bacteria from adhering to or colonizing the site. In someembodiments, the composition or the particles in the composition areconfigured to biodegrade after activating macrophages withoutsubstantial activation of neutrophils.

The compositions can be administered at localized sites in an animal,for example, at sites that are infected or may become infected. Thecompositions can also be administered at sites of implants orimplantation devices in an animal, before, during or after the implantor implantation device is placed within the animal.

Implants and/or implantation devices can also be coated with such aparticle composition and such implants and/or implantation devices canthen be administered

When coating implants and implantation devices with such particlecompositions, the composition can be applied to, embedded within, orimpregnated into the implant or implantation device. In an embodiment,the applying, embedding or impregnating of the composition may be to aparticular surface of an implantable device to suit a particular purposeor application. The applying, embedding or impregnating can be in aparticular pattern or design, to suit a particular purpose orapplication. In some embodiments, the applying, embedding orimpregnating of the composition may be to two or more surfaces of theimplantable device. The particular pattern or design can vary as afunction of the surface of the implantable device to which thecomposition is being applied, embedded or impregnated within.

By way of illustration, the composition can be a part of, in the formof, or applied to an implantable medical device, such as a sponge,bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh, valve, pacemaker,conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptive device, centralline, pessary, tube, drain, trochar, plug, cerebrospinal fluid drain,tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw, orthopedicappliance, bandage, suture or any other implantable medical device. Inone embodiment, the catheter is a pulmonary artery, pericardial,pleural, urinary or intra-abdominal catheter. The implantable medicaldevice can be configured for implantation into bone, a blood vessel, ahernia, breast, bladder, anus, vagina, penis, or any other site.

In one embodiment, the particles can be administered without beingassociated with an additional material, implant or implantable device.In another embodiment, the particles can be administered in acomposition.

In an embodiment, the particles can be administered by injection.

An injectable formulation having particles can include one or moreadditional therapeutic agents including pharmacologically activesubstances. Therapeutic agents which may be delivered include, forexample, proteins, peptides, nucleic acids and small organic molecules,for example local anesthetics (such as cocaine, procaine and lidocaine),hypnotics or sedatives (such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines andchloral derivatives), psychiatric agents (such as phenothiazines,tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors),anti-epilepsy compounds (such as hydantoins), L-dopa, opium-basedalkaloids, analgesics, anti-inflammatories, allopurinol, cancerchemotherapeutic agents, anticholinesterases, sympathomimetics (such asepinephrine, salbutamol and ephedrine), antimuscarinics (such asatropine), α-adrenergic blocking agents (such as phentolamine),β-adrenergic blocking agents (such as propranolol), ganglionicstimulating and blocking agents (such as nicotine), neuromuscularblocking agents, autacoids (such as anti-histamines and 5-HTantagonists), prostaglandins, plasma kinins (such as bradykinin),cardiovascular drugs (such as digitalis), antiarrhythmic drugs,antihypertensives, vasodilators (such as amyl nitrate and nitroglycerin)diuretics, oxytocin, antibiotics, anthelminthics, fungicides, antiviralcompounds (such as acyclovir), anti-trypanosomals, anticoagulants, sexhormones (for example for HRT or contraception), insulin, alprostidil,blood-clotting factors, calcitonin, growth hormones, vaccines,constructs for gene therapy, steroids or any combination thereof.

A composition can include at least a second compound, such as anantiviral, an anti-helminth, an anti-inflammatory, an antihistamine, animmunomodulatory, an anticoagulant, a surfactant, a bronchodilator, anantibody, a beta-adrenergic receptor inhibitor, a calcium channelblocker, an ace inhibitor, a growth factor, a hormone, a DNA, an siRNA,a vector or any combination thereof.

A composition can include an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent,an anti-inflammatory agent, an anti-cancer agent, or a combinationthereof. The anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, an anti-cancer agent, or a combination can bereleased over a time period of about more than a month, 3 weeks, 2weeks, 1 week, 144 hours, 120 hours, 96 hours, 72 hours, 48 hours, 24hours, 12 hours, 6 hours, 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour,less than 1 hour, or immediately upon administration. The anti-bacterialagent, an anti-fungal agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, an anti-canceragent or combination thereof can be in the concentration range of about0.01 mg per cm² to about 30 mg per cm² or greater.

When the composition can include an antibacterial agent, theantibacterial agent can, for example, be selected from the groupconsisting of β-lactams (including amoxicillin, ampicillin,bacampicillin, carbenicillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin,flucloxacillin, methicillin, mezlocillin, nafcillin, oxacillin,penicillin G, penicillin V, piperacillin, pivampicillin, pivmecillinam,ticarcillin, sulbactam, tazobactam, clavulanate), cephalosporins(cefaclor, cefadroxil, cefamandole, cefazolin, cefdinir, cefditoren,cefepime, cefixime, cefonicid, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan,cefoxitin, cefpodoxime, cefprozil, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime,ceftriaxone, cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephapirin,cephradine), aminoglycosides (including gentamycin, streptomycin,amikacin, kanamycin, viomycin, capreomycin), ethionamide, prothionamide,cycloserine, dapsone, clofazimine, tetracyclines (tetracycline,doxycycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, minocyclinedemeclocycline), oxazolidinones (linezolid, eperezolid), metronidazole,rifabutin, isoniazonid, ethambutol or any combination thereof.

When the composition includes an antifungal agent, the agent can, forexample, be selected from the group consisting of amphotericin B,flucytosine, fluconazole, griseofulvin, miconazole nitrate, terbinafinehydrochloride, ketoconazole, itraconazole, undecylenic acid andchloroxylenol, ciclopirox, clotrimazole, butenafine hydrochloride,nystatin, naftifine hydrochloride, oxiconazole nitrate, seleniumsulfide, econazole nitrate, terconazole, butoconazole nitrate,carbol-fuchsin, clioquinol, methylrosaniline chloride, sodiumthiosulfate, sulconazole nitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride,tioconazole, tolnaftate, undecylenic acid, undecylenate salts (calciumundecylenate, copper undecylenate, zinc undecylenate) or any combinationthereof.

When the composition includes a chemotherapeutic agent, thechemotherapeutic agent can, for example, be selected from selected fromthe group consisting of busulfan, hexamethylmelamine, thiotepa,cyclophosphamide, mechlorethamine, uramustine, melphalan, chlorambucil,carmustine, streptozocin, dacarbazine, temozolomide, cisplatin,carboplatin, ifosfamide, methotrexate, azathioprine, mercaptopurine,fludarabine, 5-fluorouracil, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine,vindesine, paclitaxel, docetaxel, podophyllotoxin, irinotecan,topotecan, amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide,dactinomycin, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, bleomycin,plicamycin, mitomycin or any combination thereof.

When the composition includes a cytokine, the cytokine can, for example,be selected from the group consisting of IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5,IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15, IL-17, IL-18, IL-22,IL-23, IL-35, type I interferon, type II interferon, tumor necrosisfactor-alpha, transforming growth factor-beta, granulocyte colonystimulating factor, granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor,thymic stromal lymphopoietin or any combination thereof.

When the composition includes a chemokine, the chemokine can, forexample, be selected from the group consisting of CC chemokines, CXCchemokines, C chemokines, CX₃C chemokines or a combination thereof.

The compositions and methods described herein can avoid unregulatedamplification of the immune system that can result in a systemic immuneresponse accompanied by side effects including tissue destruction, anautoimmune response or inflammation of internal organs. Instead, thecompositions and methods described herein can facilitate control of theimmune response to the presence of bacteria at the site of the implantedmedical device or biomaterial, such as by avoiding systemic effects, byavoiding the oxidative response often accompanying an immune response,or by minimizing the involvement or activation of neutrophils. Thecompositions and methods described herein can reduce the bacterial titerat a site of an implant or implantation device. The compositions andmethods described herein can prevent bacteria from adhering to orcolonizing the site of administration by activating macrophages.

The compositions and methods described herein can target specificpathways involved in macrophage activation such as including, but notlimited to the interferon signaling, interferon-γ, Janus-ActivatedKinase (JAK), Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT),Unfolded Protein Response (UPR), Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase(MAPK), Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF), NF-κB, inflammasome-related,lipopolysaccharide (LPS), Wnt (canonical and noncannonical), nuclearreceptor transrepression, TGF-β (and associated BMP molecules), SMADcalcium mobilization and DNA damage related pathways. Classical andalternate macrophage activation pathways can also be targeted by thepresent approach.

The compositions and methods described herein can help reduce oreliminate bacterial infections in several ways. A microenvironment canbe provided such as to inhibit, prevent, or minimize bacterialcolonization on an implantable device or biomaterial such as byinhibiting adhesion of bacteria to the device or material. A release ofparticles at the site of surgical implantation can promote a tunable andtightly regulated modulation of the immune response for the phagocytosisof bacteria.

The compositions and methods described herein can help reduce or preventbacterial colonization on an implanted medical device or biomaterial.The compositions and methods described herein can modulate the localizedimmune response, and can be tailored to combat the presence of bacteriaon an implanted medical device or biomaterial. The compositions andmethods described herein can promote bacterial adhesion to a coatedsurface such that the surface can degrade, be released, or “peel off,”to thereby accentuate the clearance of bacteria. The degradation canoccur after a time sufficient to activate macrophages.

Particles

Particles that can be used with the compositions, coatings, implants andimplantation devices can be either synthetic or manufactured from anaturally-occurring protein or one or more other molecules. Themolecular composition can include one or more natural or engineeredtherapeutic cytokines, natural or engineered chemokines, natural orengineered antibodies, natural or engineered peptides (e.g., with orwithout nucleotides of any non-amino acid molecule conjugated to it),recombinant DNA molecules, or a combination of these. A biodegradableparticle can include one or more of a polymer, which can comprise, butis not limited to a polysaccharide, carbohydrate, starch, cellulose,chitin, chitosan, lignin, gelatin, dextran, inulin, Poly(glycolic acid)(PGA), Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), Poly (Lactide-co-Glycolide) copolymer(PLGA), poly(D,L-glycolide) (PGA), poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGSA),Poly(c-caprolactone), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxyvalerate(PHV), polydioxanone (PDS), poly(pyranose), poly(furanose),polyanhydride, polyorthoester, poly(hydroxyl acid), poly(lactone), poly(amino acid), poly(anhydride), poly (methane), poly (orthoester), poly(phosphazine), poly(phosphoester), poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid,poly(ether ester)s, synthetic poly(amino acids), polycarbonates,poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s, poly(caprolactone)s, poly(cianoacrylate),poly(alkyl-cianoacrylate), poly(ketal), poly(caprolactone),poly(acetal), poly(hydroxy-ester), poly(hydroxyl-alkanoate),poly(propylene-fumarate), poly poly(ester), poly(ethers),poly(carbonates), poly(amide), poly(siloxane), poly(silane),poly(sulfide), poly(imides), poly(urea), poly(amide-enamine),poly(organic acid), poly(electrolytes), poly(p-dioxanone), poly(olefin),poloxamer, inorganic or organometallic polymers, elastomer, or aderivative, or a combination of these.

A particle can include a polymeric resin such as a polypropylene,polycarbonate, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, polystyrene,polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, fluorinated polyethylene,polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, silicone, polyester or anycombination thereof

A particle can include zein, modified zein, casein, gelatin, gluten,serum albumin, collagen, actin, α-fetoprotein, globulin, macroglobulin,cohesin, laminin, fibronectin, fibrinogen, osteocalcin, osteopontin,osteoprotegerin, or others, as will be appreciated by one skilled in theart In another embodiment the polymer may comprise cyclic sugars,cyclodextrins, synthetic derivatives of cyclodextrins, glycolipids,glycosaminoglycans, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides such as alginate,carageenan, chitosan, celluloses, chondroitin sulfate, curdlan,dextrans, elsinan, fuicellran, galactomannan, gellan, glycogen, arabicgum, hemicellulose, inulin, karaya gum, levan, pectin, pollulan,pullulane, prophyran, scleroglucan, starch, tragacanth gum, welan,xanthan, xylan, xyloglucan, hyaluronic acid, chitin,poly(3-hydroxyalkanoate)s, such as poly(hydroxybutyrate),poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate) or poly(3-hydroxy fatty acids) or a combinationof these. In another embodiment, the polymer may comprise chemicalderivatives thereof (substitutions, additions, and elimination ofchemical groups, for example, alkyl, alkylene, hydroxylation, oxidation,and other modifications routinely made by those skilled in the art),alone or in any combination with synthetic polymers.

A particle can comprise synthetically modified natural polymers, and mayinclude cellulose derivatives such as alkyl celluloses, hydroxyalkylcelluloses, cellulose ethers, cellulose esters, nitrocelluloses,chitosan or a combination thereof. Examples of suitable cellulosederivatives include methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, hydroxybutyl methylcellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose propionate, cellulose acetatebutyrate, cellulose acetate phthalate, carboxymethyl cellulose,cellulose triacetate, cellulose sulfate sodium salt or any combinationthereof.

A particle can comprise synthetic degradable polymers, which mayinclude, but are not limited to polyhydroxy acids, such aspoly(lactide)s, poly(glycolide)s, poly(ethylene terephthalate), poly(hydroxybutyric acid), poly(hydroxyvaleric acid), poly(pseudo aminoacids), poly(amino acids), poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s, poly(anhydrides),poly(orthoester)s, and blends and copolymers thereof.

A particle can comprise a bioerodible polymer such aspoly(lactide-co-glycolide)s, poly(anhydride)s, and poly(orthoester)s,which have carboxylic groups exposed on the external surface as thesmooth surface of the polymer erodes, which may also be used. A particlecan comprise a polymer containing labile bonds, such as polyesters.

A particle can have a density of about 0.3 to about 3.9 g/cm³. Preferredembodiments include a particle having a density of about 0.35 g/cm³, 0.6g/cm³, 1.1 g/cm³, 1.51 g/cm³, 2.2 g/cm³, 2.45-2.5 g/cm³, or 3.86 g/cm³.

The particles can be made in whole or in part from inorganic, organic,magnetic, fluorescent, or radioactive material, or any combination ofthese. The particles can be made in whole or in part from latex, metals,silica, alumina, titania, glass, ceramic, polystyrene, melamine, PMMA,polylactide, dextran, or any combination thereof.

By way of example, inorganic metal particles can be made in whole or inpart from gold, silver, palladium or platinum, or any combination ofthese. Inorganic silica particles can be made in whole or in part fromSiO₂, aminated SiO₂ (SiO₂—(R)_(n)—NH₂), epoxy SiO₂ (SiO₂—(R)_(n)-EP),carboxylated SiO₂ (SiO₂—(R)_(n)—COOH), avidin SiO₂, streptavidin SiO₂,protein A coated SiO₂, fluorescent-blue SiO₂, fluorescent-red SiO₂,fluorescent-green SiO₂, or any combination thereof.

Inorganic alumina particles can be made in whole or in part from plainAl₂O₃, amino coated Al₂O₃, carboxyl coated Al₂O₃. Other functionalgroups can include albumin, protein A, epoxy, NHS, NTA, EDTA or others.The plain Al₂O₃ particles can be insoluble in water and insoluble inorganic solvents. The plain Al₂O₃ can preferably have a specific gravityof 3.75-3.69 g/cm³. The crystal structure can be crystalline, α-Al₂O₃corundum phase. The surface area can preferably be less than 2-3 m²/gand can be non-porous. The surface charge can be positive (pH≦9.3) ornegative (pH≧9.3). The Al₂O₃ particles can have a density that of 1g/cm³ to 4 g/cm³. The Al₂O₃ particles preferably have a density of 2.2g/cm³. The crystal structure can be amorphous or could be converted intocrystalline state by heating.

Inorganic titania particles can be made in whole or in part from plainTiO₂, amino coated TiO₂, or carboxyl coated TiO₂. Other functionalgroups can include albumin, protein A, epoxy, NHS, NTA, EDTA or others.The plain TiO₂ particles can be insoluble in water and insoluble inorganic solvents. The TiO₂ particles can preferably have a density of2.2 g/cm³. The crystal structure can be amorphous or can be convertedinto crystalline state anatase or rutile by heating. The surface chargecan be positive (pH≦4.5) or negative (pH≧5). Particles made of titaniacan have the special property of being a strong oxidant of organicmolecules.

Inorganic glass particles can be made in whole or in part from plainglass, precision glass, sieve calibration glass, high refraction indexglass, hollow glass, or dyed glass. The refraction index of the highrefraction index glass can preferably range from 1.90-2.00. The highrefraction index glass particle size can range from 1-100 μm. Morespecifically, a high refraction index glass particle can be in the sizerange of 22±8.7%, 29±10.3%, 34.5±4.3%, 37.5±1.3%, 39.5±1.3%, 43.0±4.7%,48±4.2%, 52.0±1.9%, 55.0±1.8%, 60.0±5.0%, 67.5±5.2%, 73.5±2.0%,78.0±2.6%, 85.5±85.3%, 95.5±4.7%, 103.5±2.4%. Hollow glass particles canbe made from borosilicate glass. The particles can be hollow, butnon-porous. The true density of the C-PHGL (Corpuscular Plain HollowGLass) can be size dependent; for instance, 11 μm, 18 μm, and 30 μmhollow glass beads have true densities of 1.1, 0.6, and 0.35 g/cm³,respectively. Dyed glass can be made in whole or in part from high pureraw materials (in some instances, soda lime). The dyed glass can have apure and shining surface. A dyed glass particle can preferably have adensity of 2.45-2.50 g/cm³. A dyed glass particle can have a chemicalcomposition of 65% SiO₂, 13% Na₂O, 8% CaO and other minor components.The dyed glass particle can be free from lead oxide. A dyed glassparticle can be red, yellow, green, blue, pink, fuchsia, purple, silver,gold, copper, black, or any other color.

Inorganic ceramic particles can be made in whole or in part fromzirconium oxide. The zirconium oxide particle can be yttrium-stabilized.In some cases, ZrOY beads can be made in whole or in part from highpurity Zirconia powder and is fully Yttrium stabilized to ensure extremeresistance to wear. The chemical composition of a zirconium oxideyttrium-stabilized particle can be ZrO₂-95.0%, Y₂O₃-5.0%. The specificweight can preferably be >5.9 g/cm³. The hardness can preferably beMohs≧8.0. The crushing strength can preferably be 15 KN.

The inorganic ceramic particle can be made in whole or in part fromzirconium silicate. The chemical composition of a zirconium silicateparticle can be ZrO₂-68.5%, SiO₂-31.5%. The density can preferably be3.86 g/cm³. The hardness can preferably be Mohs≧7.2. The melting pointcan preferably be >2500° K. The crushing strength can preferably be710N.

Organic particles can be made in whole or in part with polystyrene, PMMA(polymethylmethacrylate), melamine (polymethylenemelamine), polylactide,or any combination thereof. An organic polystyrene particle can beaminated, carboxylated, coated with avidin, streptavidin, biotin,antibody or a fluorescent material. In the instance of a polystyreneparticle made in whole or in part or coated with avidin, the avidincontent can preferably be 14 μg/mg of solid particles, or 0.212 nmole/mgof solid particles.

In the instance of a particle made in whole or in part of melamine(polymethylenemelamine), the particle can be made from crosslinkedmelamine. The particle can preferably have a density of about 1.51g/cm³. The particle can be heat resistant up to 300° C. The particle canpreferably have a refractive index of about 1.68. The surface of amelamine (polymethylenemelamine) can be terminated with a methylolgroup. The methylol group could be functionalized in a desired manner. Amelamine particle can have an amino functional surface. The aminosurface group can be NH or NH₂. The NH or NH₂ group can be at every nm².For instance, a particle with 1 μm diameter can have at least 3,000,000surface amino groups. A melamine particle can be modified to have a highdensity of carboxy functional groups. A melamine particle having acarboxy functional group can preferably have a density of 1.51 g/cm³.The refractive index can be 1.68. A melamine particle having a carboxyfunctional group can have a C.V. of <3%. A melamine particle having acarboxy functional group can preferably have high temperature stabilityup to 250° C.

In the instance of a particle made in whole or in part of polylactide,the particle can be plain, aminated, carboxylated, can include collagenor can be dyed a fluorescent or non-fluorescent color.

A particle can be made in whole or in part of a magnetic material. Inone instance, the magnetic material can include silica, polystyrene,dextran, or any combination thereof. A functional magnetic particle caninclude any one or any combination of the following: silanol, carboxyl,amino, chloromethyl, streptavidin, biotin, avidin, protein A, antibody,or albumin. A magnetic particle can be PEGylated, COOH terminatedPEGylated, or NH₂ terminated PEGylated. A magnetic particle can includea fluorescent material. A magnetic particle can include dextran,aminated NH₂, carboxylated COOH, avidin, streptavidin, biotin, orprotein A.

A particle can be made in whole or in part from a radioactive material.A radioactive particle can include oxide, polymer, or a magneticmaterial. A radioactive particle can include Holmium-166. In oneinstance, the particle can be ¹⁶⁶Ho₂O₃—SiO₂. A radioactive particle caninclude Praseodymium-166. In one instance, the particle can be¹⁴²Pr₂O₃—SiO₂.

A particle can include a fluorescent material. In the instance of aparticle involving a fluorescent material, the material can be yellow,light yellow, acridine yellow, red, nile red, far red, Texas red, pink,purple, violet, blue, sky blue, light blue, nile blue, orange, acridineorange, green, rhodamine B, FITC any other fluorescent color, or anycombination thereof. The intensity of the fluorescent material can be oflow intensity, medium intensity or high intensity.

The particles can have functional surfaces. The functional surfaces canbe useful for coupling of DNA, oligonucleotides, oligopeptides,proteins, lectins and antibodies. The functional surfaces can comprisean amine, epoxy, carboxyl, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, fluorescentmaterial, or a combination thereof. The particle surface can be plain,or include biotin, streptavidin, or antibody finishes, or anycombination thereof.

The particles can be doped with other elements. The doped elements couldbe distributed uniformly, internally or externally. The particles canhave homogenous or heterogeneous surfaces. The particles can have smoothsurfaces or rough surfaces, or a combination. A particle may containair-bubbles. In some cases, a particle can be free from foreignparticles, glass fragments, or other impurities.

The particles disclosed herein that are suitable for administration orincorporation into a composition or coating can fall within a range ofsizes. As one illustration, the particles can have a diameter rangingfrom about 0.01 μm to about 15 μm. In one illustration, the particlescan have a diameter that is less than or equal to 10 μm, less than orequal to 1 μm, less than or equal to 0.5 μm, or less than or equal to0.1 μm. The particles can vary in size, can include particles ofmultiple sizes, or can be uniform in size. Any sized particle suitablefor triggering phagocytosis can be suitable for use.

The particles can range in size from 1 to 1000 nm. More specifically,the nanoparticles can average in size from about 1 nm, 2 nm, 5 nm, 10nm, 15 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100nm, 110 nm, 120 nm, 130 nm, 140 nm, 150 nm, 160 nm, 170 nm, 180 nm, 190nm, 200 nm, 210 nm, 220 nm, 230 nm, 240 nm, 250 nm, 260 nm, 270 nm, 280nm, 290 nm, 300 nm, 310 nm, 320 nm, 330 nm, 340 nm, 350 nm, 360 nm, 370nm, 380 nm, 390 nm, 400 nm, 410 nm, 420 nm, 430 nm, 440 nm, 450 nm, 460nm, 470 nm, 480 nm, 490 nm, 500 nm, 510 nm, 520 nm, 530 nm, 540 nm, 550nm, 560 nm, 570 nm, 580 nm, 590 nm, 600 nm, 610 nm, 620 nm, 630 nm, 640nm, 650 nm, 660 nm, 670 nm, 680 nm, 690 nm, 700 nm, 710 nm, 720 nm, 730nm, 740 nm, 750 nm, 760 nm, 770 nm, 780 nm, 790 nm, 800 nm, 810 nm, 820nm, 830 nm, 840 nm, 850 nm, 860 nm, 870 nm, 880 nm, 890 nm, 900 nm, 910nm, 920 nm, 930 nm, 940 nm, 950 nm, 960 nm, 970 nm, 980 nm, 990 nm, toabout 1000 nm.

The particles can range in size from 1 μm to 100 μm. More specifically,the microparticles can average in size from about 1.0 μm, 1.5 μm, 2.0μm, 2.5 μm, 3.0 μm, 3.5 μm, 4.0 μm, 4.5 μm, 5.0 μm, 5.5 μm, 6.0 μm, 6.5μm, 7.0 μm, 7.5 μm, 8.0 μm, 8.5 μm, 9.0 μm, 9.5 μm, 10.0 μm, 15.0 μm,20.0 μm, 25.0 μm, 30.0 μm, 35.0 μm, 40.0 μm, 45.0 μm, 50.0 μm, 55.0 μm,60.0 μm, 65.0 μm, 70.0 μm, 75.0 μm, 80.0 μm, 85.0 μm, 90.0 μm, 95.0 μm,to about 100.0 μm.

The particles can include a mixture of synthetic or naturally-occurringproteins or other molecules. The particles can be available as a drypowder, or suspended in aqueous media. In one instance, the aqueousmedia can be deionized water. A coated particle can be prepared bypassive adsorption or covalent coupling. A particle can be prepared byemulsion and/or emulsion-free polymerization.

The particle shape or surface can be of any molecular composition thatinhibits or prevents bacterial colonization of an implant. The shape orsurface of the particle can attract bacteria to the particle surfacerather than the medical implant surface. The particles or surface of theparticles can be ionically charged. The surface can be positivelycharged or negatively charged. The particles can be generally sphericalin shape. The particles can be perfectly spherical. The particles can besubstantially rod shaped, cone shaped, cylindrical, cuboidal, spherical,square, rectangular, planar, ovoid, any other suitable shape, or anycombination thereof. The particles can range in sphericity from 98-100%.The particles can range in sphericity from ≧95%. The surface ofparticles can be smooth. The average surface roughness (R_(a), measuredin microns) can be below 0.2, below 0.1, below 0.05, or below 0.01. Thesurface of the particles can be rough. As one illustration, the averagesurface roughness (R_(a), measured in microns) can be greater than 0.2,greater than 0.3, greater than 0.4, greater than 0.5, greater than 1,greater than 5, or greater than 10. As used herein, average surfaceroughness is a height parameter defined as the average deviation of thesurface profile from the mean line.

The particle surface can include a surface that inhibits or preventsbacterial propagation. The particle surface can include a surface thatis configured to attract bacteria, such as to promote bacterialadhesion. Examples of surface components that can increase bacterialadhesion can include, but are not limited to fibronectin, albumin,fibrinogen, thrombin, thrombospondin, or platelet protein.

The inhibition or prevention of bacterial colonization of an implant canalso be facilitated by one or more agents implanted with the particles.The particles can include or be implanted with an added agent such as abactericidal agent (e.g., an antimicrobial), antibiotic, or antibioticconjugate. Examples of bactericidal agents can include but are notlimited to penicillin, streptomycin, cephalosporins, bacitracin or anycombination thereof. Examples of antibiotics can include, but are notlimited to, β-lactams (including amoxicillin, ampicillin, bacampicillin,carbenicillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, methicillin,mezlocillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, penicillin G, penicillin V,piperacillin, pivampicillin, pivmecillinam, ticarcillin, sulbactam,tazobactam, clavulanate), cephalosporins (cefaclor, cefadroxil,cefamandole, cefazolin, cefdinir, cefditoren, cefepime, cefixime,cefonicid, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan, cefoxitin, cefpodoxime,cefprozil, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone,cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephapirin, cephradine),aminoglycosides (including gentamycin, streptomycin, amikacin,kanamycin, viomycin, capreomycin), ethionamide, prothionamide,cycloserine, dapsone, clofazimine, tetracyclines (tetracycline,doxycycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, minocyclinedemeclocycline), oxazolidinones (linezolid, eperezolid), metronidazole,rifabutin, isoniazonid, ethambutol, or any combination thereof. Otheradded agents can be used in combination with one or more additionalbactericidal agents, antibiotics, or antibiotic conjugates.

Methods of Treatment

One effect of the present compositions and coatings can be to prevent orminimize the colonization of bacteria on a surface of a biomaterialimplant such as by inhibiting adhesion of the bacteria to the implantsurface. Another effect can be to encourage bacterial adhesion to aparticle that is upon or associated with an implant. Another effect canbe to regulate the amplification of an adaptive immune response toinfection.

The present inventors have discovered that an implant coated with aparticle formulation including a biodegradable or stable micro-particleor nano-particle formulation composed of natural or synthetic materialscan help achieve one or more of the aforementioned effects. Theformulation can be present in a uniform or layered format configurationsuch as to further inhibit or prevent bacterial colonization or modulatethe immune response.

Thus, one aspect of the invention is a method of reducing a microbialinfection at a site in an animal in need thereof, that includes locallyadministering to the site an effective amount of a compositioncomprising particles having a diameter of about 1.0 nm to about 100 μm,to thereby reduce microbial infection at the site in the animal. Theparticles can inhibit bacteria from adhering to or colonizing the site.In some embodiments, the composition is configured to biodegrade afteractivating macrophages without substantial activation of neutrophils.

The present compositions and methods can provide particles that arelocally administered to a surgical site. Local administration caninclude coating the surface of an implant with particles. Localadministration can include injecting particles such as into an infectedsite or into a surgical site.

The administration of an added agent can be systemic or local. Whenadministration is local, an added agent can be part of a particlecomposition or be coated on the outside of a particle, co-administeredinto the site of the implant, or encapsulated within a particle. Whenthe added agent is encapsulated within a particle, it can be releasedupon disintegration of a one or more of the particles or coating layers.When the particle disintegration releases an added agent, thedisintegration can either degrade spontaneously or be caused byphagocytosis by macrophages.

A particle can facilitate a localized, non-systemic amplification of anadaptive active immune response. The localized amplification can beattenuated and primarily targeted to macrophage activation with minimalinvolvement of the neutrophils through a timed degradation of theparticles. The timed degradation can up-regulate in vivo bactericidalmechanisms that are not reliant on the oxidative stress response. Theparticles on the surface of the implanted device can up-regulate thephagocytotic activities of the macrophages. The particles can inducemacrophage infiltration into the implant site. The cell mediatedresponse facilitated by the particles can magnify the local cellmediated response such as by increasing phagocytosis and bacterialclearance from the site of infection. The process of localizedparticle-mediated immune response need not pharmacologically influenceany oxidative burst associated with any subsequent phagocytosis ofbacteria or pathogens in the vicinity of the biomaterial implant. Thus,the neutrophil response can be down-regulated, or neutrophil involvementcan be minimal or only a secondary process. In some embodiments, thereis substantially no neutrophil response associated with theadministration of a particle composition or implant coated by a particlecomposition.

The localized, non-systemic amplification of the adaptive active immuneresponse can be achieved in a variety of ways. In general, the immuneamplification can be localized to the region of the implantedcomposition or coated implantation device. The prevention or inhibitionof bacterial infections caused by the localized response can berestricted to macrophage-mediated mechanisms. The immune amplificationof an adaptive active immune response can involve a biochemical,signaling pathway, or metabolic pathway, or any combination thereof. Theimmune amplification can be trigged by transcription, translation,silencing, or enhancing of genes. The biodegradable particles candegrade spontaneously following phagocytosis.

The degradation of the particles can be biologically-induced orchemically-induced. Biologically-induced degradation can occur, forexample, by enzymes or metabolism. Chemically-induced degradation canoccur, for example, by dissolution in the physiological environment, orby pH-mediated breakdown.

The implant can be dipped into a suspension of particles beforeinsertion so that the implant can be coated with particles beforeimplantation. The particles can be administered after administration ofthe implant.

The present coatings and methods can include use of layers of particlesor a single coating of a particle composition. Individual layers orcoatings can break down in the body. The particle layers or coating canbe configured to disintegrate, “peel off,” or otherwise disassociatesuch as at specified time intervals. Such particle layers, or coatingscan inhibit or prevent bacteria from adhering to or colonizing animplant surface. The peeling off process can be configured to occurcontinuously or in a stepwise fashion. The particles in the layer orcoating can attract bacteria to the particle surface rather than to theimplant. Peeling or disintegration of particle layers or coatings caninhibit bacterial colonization of the implant, such as by inhibiting orpreventing the bacteria from surrounding the implant with a biofilm.Preventing formation of a biofilm on the implant can be particularlyadvantageous because biofilms frequently are not effectively penetratedby antibiotic agents. Further, bacteria encased in a biofilm oftencannot be cleared or eliminated by macrophages.

A regulated disintegration of the particle coating, such as describedabove, can promote a highly regulated and timed localized immuneresponse. Particle disintegration can occur in one phase or, in anexample, in at least two phases, such as an initial phase of rapiddisintegration followed by a phase of slower disintegration. The firstphase of rapid disintegration can result in a magnified immune responseto help destroy the bacteria. The particles can magnify a local cellmediated immune response, for example, by increasing bacterial killing,phagocytosis, or bacterial clearance from the infection site. However,in order to prevent systemic upregulation of the immune response, theimmune response can be returned to its more quiescent state quickly suchas by slowing down or even ceasing the release of the particles from theimplant surface such as after a certain specified period of time. Thus,the amount or disintegration properties of particles employed can betailored to initiate a localized immune response (e.g. via macrophages)but avoid a systemic immune response.

The particles can be coated with specific molecules that can mimic thepresence of bacteria and thus, accelerate a localized immune response.Activation of an adaptive active immune response can occur in specificcells in the blood stream and not to macrophages alone. In oneillustration, the timed release of the particles in a coating or from asurface of the biomaterial implant does not directly accelerate, induce,or modulate a neutrophil-mediated oxidative burst. The timed release ofthe particles from one or more surfaces of the biomaterial implant caninhibit a neutrophil-mediated oxidative burst.

The particles can be applied to the surface of an implantable medicaldevice or biomaterial such that the particles can be released acrossdesired time spans. The particles can be released over a specified timeperiod, such as an about one week time span, over a period ranging fromabout one day to about seven days, over an about a 24-hour period, overa period of about 4 hours, or the particles can be released in less thanabout 4 hours. Multiple layers of degradable particle-containingcoatings can be applied so that degradation rates of respective layerscan differ, such that the overall degradation rate of the aggregatemultiple layers can vary over time.

The degradation rate of the small particles can be specified or adjustedsuch as to prevent long term effects on the normal immune response atthe implant site. The coating and particle composition can be composedof assorted available materials that can be configured to refine thecharacter of the local response. The particle coating can be used incombination with a compound, such as an antimicrobial compound, that canbe released at least partially concurrently. Such a combination canaccentuate both the antimicrobial properties and local cell-mediatedimmune response of such a composite coating, and thereby improveclearance of bacteria.

One or more coated surfaces of the biomaterial implant can be used topromote adhesion of bacteria such as at a specified region. Theparticles present in the coating can act as a binding surface forbacteria, thereby reducing the bacterial numbers available for bindingdirectly to an implant surface. A bacteria-bound particle can be of asize capable of being phagocytosable by macrophages, facilitatingbacterial clearance from the surrounding bodily tissues. Oncephagocytosed, the particles can be rapidly degraded within thephagosomes (e.g., macrophages) along with any bound bacteria. Thus, theparticles can reduce the bacterial titer in the vicinity of thebiomaterial implant. Such induction of phagocytosis can also helpdecrease or minimize the involvement of neutrophils and help avoid aneutrophil-induced oxidative burst.

The particles can be configured to provide one or more appropriatesurface characteristics, such as a desired surface charge orhydrophobicity, to facilitate bacterial binding. The particles can havea physical or chemical surface configuration, density, or porosity(e.g., porous or non-porous) such as to facilitate bacterial binding.The particles can be released from the biomaterial surface, for example,to carry particle-bound bacteria away from an implant's surface, withoutbeing dependent on cell-mediated (e.g., macrophage or neutrophil) immunemechanisms.

The present inventors have recognized and believe that specific,regulated immune responses in the presence of particles can be effectiveto control bacterial infections with little or no detrimental systemicside-effects. An effective bacterial treatment can be achieved byadministering biocompatible particles to facilitate a localized,non-systemic amplification of adaptive, active local immune responsedirected towards the attenuation or neutralization of bacterialinfection at the site of surgical implants.

The present subject matter can be used in conjunction with various typesof biomaterial implants, including surgical meshes, vascular grafts,catheters, orthopedic device implants (e.g., artificial joints), dentalimplants, bone fixation rods, plates, screw, etc. or any other medicalimplants having an incidence of bacterial infection.

The following examples are provided in order to demonstrate and furtherillustrate certain embodiments and aspects of the present invention andare not to be construed as limiting the scope thereof.

Example 1 Degradable Micro- or Nano-Particles Cultured with MouseMacrophage Cell Lines

Cell line: Mouse macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 was purchased from ATCC.The RAW 264.7 line was established from a tumor induced by Abelsonmurine leukemia virus. RAW 264.7 cells are negative for surfaceimmunoglobulin, la, and Thy-1.2. These cells do not secrete detectablevirus particles. RAW 264.7 cells were seeded onto 75 cm² flasks at asubcultivation ratio of 1:3 to 1:6. Medium was replaced or added every 2to 3 days. Cells were not passaged for more than 30 days.

Cell culture: RAW 264.7 cells were cultured in Dulbecco's ModifiedEagle's Medium (DMEM, Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetal bovineserum (Invitrogen). Subcultures were prepared by scraping. Cells weremaintained at 95% air, 5% CO₂ at a temperature of 37.0° C.

Micro- or nano-sphere incubations: Polystyrene micro-spheres ornano-spheres (Corpuscular, Inc.) were tested for endotoxin levels andwere confirmed to be <0.05 EU/ml prior to use using the Limulusamebocyte lysate (LAL) assay (WuXi AppTec). RAW 264.7 cells were seededat 30% into 6-well plates one day prior incubations. Nano-spheres of 0.1μm or 0.5 μm in size or micro-spheres of 1.0 μam in size were used forincubations. Particle densities of 2.5×10⁵, 5.5×10⁵, 7.5×10⁵, 1.0×10⁶per cm² were introduced into wells. The cells were gently agitatedduring the incubation and were incubated for various periods of time. Insome examples, the cells were incubated with the micro- or nano-spheresfor up to 3 days before harvesting. In other examples, the micro- ornano-spheres were removed after 12 hours, and the growth medium wasreplaced every 12 to 15 hours for up to 3 days before harvesting. Inother examples, the micro- or nano-spheres were removed after 24 hours,and the growth medium was replaced every 24 hours for up to 3 daysbefore harvesting.

Microscopy: After incubation with micro- or nano-spheres, RAW 264.7cells were observed. Images of the macrophage phagocytic response weretaken using a Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL microscope. Imaging was performedusing a 40× objective in combination with a phase contrast condenser.

Western blot analysis: Fifteen percent SDS-PAGE gels were used forwestern blot analysis. The XCell II Blot apparatus (Invitrogen) wasutilized. Suitable antibodies can be obtained from polyclonal sera,monospecific sera or from monoclonal antibody culture. Techniques forproducing and processing monoclonal and polyclonal sera are abundantlyknown in the art (e.g. Reinherz et al. (1979) J. Immunol. 123, 1312,Ritz et al. Nature (1980) 283, 583, and Mayer and Walter, eds.Immunochemical Methods in Cell and Molecular Biology, Academic Press,London, 1987). Animals suitable for raising the antibodies are e.g.cows, rabbits, mice or chickens.

A mouse antibody recognizing MIP-3α was utilized and produced a 12.2 kDaband (+/−5 kDa) after polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A mouseantibody recognizing CXCL-10 produced a 10.9 kDa band (+/−5 kDa). Amouse antibody recognizing CCL-22 produced a 10.7 kDa band (+/−5 kDa). Agoat anti-mouse HRP-conjugated secondary antibody (Invitrogen) was alsoused.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): Standard ELISA techniquessuch as direct, indirect, competitive, or noncompetitive immunoassayswere employed (see, e.g., Oellerich, M. 1984. J. Clin. Chem. Clin.Biochem 22:895-904). Prior to use in ELISA experiments, serum wasremoved from culture media using the ProteoPrep 20 PlasmaImmunodepletion Kit (Sigma-Aldrich). Mouse MIP-1α and MIP-3α ELISAplates were assembled using non-commercial reagents. Recombinant mouseMIP-1α and MIP-3α were used as standards. End-point assays were read ona BMG microplate reader (Germany). RAW 264.7 cells were incubated withvarious sized particles for twelve hours.

Rates of utilization of glucose and glutamine and lactate production: Toinvestigate glucose, glutamine and lactate production by RAW 264.7cells, cells were first either unexposed to particles, or were exposedto particles ranging in size from 0.1 to 1.0 μm. Medium was removed fromthe cells at various time points (0.5 ml) and was diluted with deionizedwater (0.5 ml). The diluted medium was injected into a Kodak Biolyzerfor analysis. The analyses were performed over a 72 hour period in orderto track the metabolic status of the cells.

Example 2 Degradable Micro- and Nano-Particles Trigger a Transitory,Tunable Response that is Localized to the Site of Injection in Animals

Animal Studies: 250-300 g Sprague Dawley rats were anesthetized with 75mg/kg ketamine and 10 mg/kg xylazine. Fur was shaved above eachquadriceps muscle. Particles were injected in 5 μl to 40 μl amounts in 5locations in both muscles at a 1:100 or 1:50 dilution. Polystyrenemicrospheres (1.0 μM, 25 mg/ml) were first sterilized in 80% ethanol bythree 50 min centrifugation steps followed by three washes in sterilePBS. The particles were then resuspended in sterile PBS at aconcentration of 2.5 mg/ml. Prior to injection, the particles werefurther diluted 1:50 and 1:100 in sterile PBS. After 3 days, rats wereanesthetized with 75 mg/kg ketamine and 10 mg/kg xylazine. The muscleswere removed quickly, snap frozen into cold isopentane, placed in atube, and further frozen in liquid nitrogen. Blood was collected fromthe heart, and the animal was euthanized via exsanguination by removalof the heart. Heart blood was placed in a heparinized tube, centrifugedat 2,500 rpm for 25 min. Plasma was removed and frozen at −80° C.Control animals were either injected with PBS or taken out of the cageand returned without injection. The latter control was to normalize forany stress response that may be associated with handling the animalalone.

Histology: Cross-sections of 10 μm-12 μm thickness were cut fromquadriceps on a cryostat (Leica Microsystems, Nusslock, Germany) at −20°C. Each muscle was then stained with hematoxylin and eosin for generalmorphology (see, e.g., Snow, L M. 2012. Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehab.).

Microscopy: Images of the histology slides were taken using a NikonN-Storm inverted microscope. 40× and 60× objectives were used to locatethe particles in the vicinity of activated macrophages.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A standard ELISA techniquesimilar to that explained above was performed on circulating blood oftreated (micro- and nano-particle injection) and untreated (control)animals. In order to minimize interference with the final colorimetricsignal, excess serum was removed using the ProteoPrep 20 PlasmaImmunodepletion Kit as described before. ELISA plates were preparedusing rat MIP-1α and MIP-3α antibodies. End-point assays were performedusing a BMG microplate reader.

Results

Micro- or Nano Particles Induce Phagocytosis, Induce Classical orAlternate Pathway Immune Response

Phase-contrast microscopy of RAW 264.7 confirmed induction ofphagocytosis of particles 10 μm in size after 24 hours (FIG. 1). Anincreased number of particles were phagocytosed by the cells when higherparticles densities were incubated with the cells. For example, agreater number of particles were phagocytosed by the RAW 264.7 cellswhen incubated with micro- or nano-particles at a density of 10.0×10⁵(FIG. 1F) than when cells were incubated with micro- and nano-particlesat a density of 7.5×10⁵ (FIG. 1E). Similarly, a greater number ofparticles were phagocytosed by the RAW 264.7 cells when incubated withmicro- and nano-particles at a density of 7.5×10⁵ (FIG. 1E) than whencells were incubated with micro- and nano-particles at a density of5.0×10⁵ (FIG. 1D). A greater number of particles were phagocytosed bythe RAW 264.7 cells when incubated with micro- or nano-particles at adensity of 5.0×10⁵ (FIG. 1D) than when cells were incubated with micro-or nano-particles at a density of 2.5×10⁵ (FIG. 1C). RAW 264.7 cellsincubated in the absence of particles showed no phagocytotic activity(FIGS. 1A & B).

Histopathological examination of tissue section from sites injected withparticles (FIG. 8B-E) demonstrated a marked influx of macrophageswithout increased cellularity or evidence of inflammation in tissuesadjacent to the injection tracts when compared to controls (FIG. 8A).Macrophages in the presence of particles within the tissues showedintracellular, phagocytosed particles and evidence of “activation” (FIG.8B-E). Activated macrophages exhibit less dense nuclei and areas offoamy cytoplasm with evidence of intracellular phagocytosed particles ascompared to inactive macrophages. The accumulation of activatedmacrophages with evidence of phagocytosed particles in the localinjection site response was predominated by activated macrophages withminimal to absent neutrophils. Few if any macrophages were present intissues outside the areas injected with particles supporting theinduction of a local activation and mobilization of macrophages to thearea injected with the particles, without distant effects (FIG. 8B-E).

Western blot analysis indicated the induction of both classical andalternate immune response pathways (FIGS. 2-4). For example, toinvestigate the classical immune response, the expression of MIP-3α wasobserved after RAW 264.7 cells were incubated with micro- ornano-particles for 24 hours (FIG. 2). Particle size had a greater effecton MIP-3α expression than did particle density (FIG. 2). For example,the expression of MIP-3α was investigated when cells were incubated withparticles 0.1-1.0 μm in size (FIG. 2). Cells were incubated withparticle densities of 2.5×10⁵, 5.5×10⁵, 7.5×10⁵, or 1.0×10⁶ per cm².MIP-3α expression was largely unaffected by the particles of 0.1 μm insize (FIG. 2, lanes 11-14). Similarly, MIP-3α expression was largelyunaffected by the particle density when the particles were 0.1 μm insize (FIG. 2, lanes 3-6). The expression of MIP-3α was also investigatedwhen cells were incubated with particles of 0.5 μm in size at particledensities also ranging from 2.5×10⁵ to 1.0×10⁶ per cm² (FIG. 2, lanes7-10). MIP-3α expression increased at all particle densities when theparticle size was 0.5 μm (FIG. 2, lanes 7-10). Similarly, when cellswere incubated with particles of 1.0 μm in size, MIP-3α expressionincreased at all particle densities (FIG. 2, lanes 11-14). Expression ofMIP-3α increased to similar levels when the particle size was either 0.5μm or 1.0 μm (FIG. 2, lanes 7-14).

In another example, to further investigate the classical immuneresponse, the expression of CXCL-10 was investigated by Western blotanalysis. RAW 264.7 cells were transiently exposed to micro- ornano-particles. Cells were exposed to particles for 72 hours (FIG. 3,lanes 11-13) or particles were removed after 15 hours, and freshparticle-free medium was added every 12-15 hours. Transiently exposedcells were cultured for a total of 24 hours (FIG. 3, lanes 2, 5, and 8),48 hours (FIG. 3, lanes 3, 6, and 9), or 72 hours (FIG. 3, lanes 4, 7,and 10). When cells were exposed to particles for 72 hours, expressionof CXCL-10 was increased irrespective of particle size in comparison tocells not exposed to particles (FIG. 3, lanes 11-13). When cells wereexposed to particles and withdrawn after 15 hours, the expression ofCXCL-10 was not greatly increased when particles were 0.1 or 0.5 μm incomparison to non-exposed cells (FIG. 3, lanes 1-7). When cells wereexposed to particles 1.0 μm in size for 15 hours, an increase in CXCL-10expression was seen after 48 to 72 hours (FIG. 3, lanes 8-10). Ingeneral, expression of CXCL-10 is primarily limited to cells exposed tomicro- or nano-particles for prolonged periods of time (FIG. 3, lanes8-13).

To investigate the induction of the alternate immune response pathway,the expression of CCL-22 was investigated by Western blot analysis. Theexpression of CCL-22 was investigated after RAW 264.7 cells wereincubated with micro- or nano-particles for 24 hours (FIG. 4). Againparticle size had a greater effect on expression than did particledensity (FIG. 4). For example, expression of CCL-22 increased ascompared to the negative control (e.g. RAW 264.7 cells not incubatedwith particles) when cells were incubated with particles of 0.1 μm size(FIG. 4, lanes 3-6). Although expression was slightly higher when cellswere incubated with 0.1 μm particles at a density of 1.0×10⁶, overall,expression of CCL-22 was largely unaffected by density when theparticles were 0.1 μm in size (FIG. 4, lanes 3-6). In another example,RAW 264.7 cells were incubated with 0.5 μm sized particles also atdensities ranging from 2.5×10² to 1.0×10⁶ per cm² (FIG. 4, lanes 7-10).When particles were 0.5 μm in size, expression of CCL-22 was increasedwhen compared to the negative control (FIG. 4, lanes 2 & 7-10). Inanother example, cells were incubated with particles that were 1.0 μm insize at densities ranging from 2.5×10⁵ to 1.0×10⁶ per cm². When cellswere incubated with particles 1.0 μm in size, expression of CCL-22 wasincreased in comparison to cells that had not been incubated withparticles, and seemed to be largely unaffected by particle density (FIG.4, lanes 11-14). Overall, expression of CCL-22 expression was greatestwhen cells were incubated with particles 0.1 μm in size (FIG. 4, lanes3-6). Expression of CCL-22 decreased as the particle size increased(FIG. 4). Particle density had little to no effect regardless ofparticle size (FIG. 4).

ELISA experiments were also performed to investigate the expression ofMIP-1α (FIG. 5A-C) or MIP-3α (FIG. 6A-C) after the micro- andnano-particles were removed from the cells. MIP-1α or MIP-3α expressionwas assayed at time points ranging from 0 to 72 hours. Particles wereremoved after twelve hours. MIP-1α expression peaked at 24 hours anddecreased to near undetectable levels after 36 hours (FIG. 5A-C).Particle size had little effect on the response or return to nearundetectable levels (FIG. 5A-C). MIP-3α expression peaked at 24 hourswhen cells were incubated with particles 0.1 or 0.5 μm in size, and at15 hours when cells were incubated with particles 1.0 μm in size (FIG.6A-C). After 38 hours, expression of MIP-3α decreased to nearundetectable levels regardless of particle size (FIG. 6A-C).

When cells were continuously incubated with micro- or nano-particles,the expression of MIP-1α steadily increased throughout the 72 hourmeasurement period (FIG. 5D). Expression of MIP-1α was slightlyincreased when particles were 1.0 μm in size in comparison to particles0.1 or 0.5 μm in size (FIG. 5D). Expression of MIP-3α increased after 15hours and increased only slightly for the remainder of the72-measurement period (FIG. 6D).

To further confirm that the phagocytosis of particles in the injectionsite resulted only in a localized inflammatory and not a systemicresponse, expression of MIP-1α (FIG. 9) and MIP-3α (FIG. 10), twomarkers of the classic immune response, were analyzed by ELISA from thecirculating blood in treated and control rats. No significant changes ineither marker from baseline levels were observed due to the injection ofthe particles in the quadriceps muscles clearly indicating that theimmune response is localized to the site of injection and does notescalate to a systemic inflammatory response (FIGS. 9-10).

Metabolic bioanalysis: RAW 264.7 cells were incubated with micro- ornano-particles for 72 hours, or for 15 hours, after which the particleswere removed and fresh particle-free medium was added every 12-15 hours(FIG. 7). Transiently exposed cells were cultured for a total of 24hours, 48 hours, or 72 hours. Cells transiently exposed to particleswere able to rapidly return to normal utilization of glucose andglutamine, and normal production of lactate following the removal ofmicro- or nano-particles (FIG. 7A). Rapid clearance or degradation ofthe micro- or nano-spheres allow the cells to rapidly return tohomeostasis once the particles are cleared or degraded. On the otherhand, when cells were exposed to particles continuously for 72 hours,the use of glucose and glutamine was slowed in comparison to cellslacking particle exposure (FIG. 7B). This effect may be due to theredirection of the cell's resources for phagocytosis.

These results indicate that a localized and transitory immune responsecan be triggered that can be regulated to achieve a desired local immuneresponse targeted to the removal of contaminating bacteria in thevicinity of the surgical implant without triggering a systemicinflammation response.

Additional Notes

The above description includes references to the incorporated drawingsand examples. The examples and figures show, by way of illustration,specific embodiments in which the invention can be practiced. Theseembodiments are also referred to herein as “examples.” Such examples caninclude elements in addition to those shown and described. However, thepresent inventors also contemplate examples in which only those elementsshown and described are provided. Moreover, the present inventors alsocontemplate examples using any combination or permutation of thoseelements shown or described (or one or more aspects thereof), eitherwith respect to a particular example (or one or more aspects thereof),or with respect to other examples (or one or more aspects thereof) shownor described herein.

In the event of inconsistent usages between this document and anydocuments so incorporated by reference, the usage in this documentcontrols. In this document, the terms “a” or “an” are used, as is commonin patent documents, to include one or more than one, independent of anyother instances or usages of “at least one” or “one or more.” In thisdocument, the term “or” is used to refer to a nonexclusive or, such that“A or B” includes “A but not B,” “B but not A,” and “A and B,” unlessotherwise indicated.

In the appended claims, the terms “including” and “in which” are used asthe plain-English equivalents of the respective terms “comprising” and“wherein.” Also, in the following claims, the terms “including” and“comprising” are open-ended, that is, a system, device, apparatus,article, or process that includes elements in addition to those listedafter such a term in a claim are still deemed to fall within the scopeof that claim. Moreover, in the following claims, the terms “first,”“second,” and “third,” etc. are used merely as labels, and are notintended to impose numerical requirements on their objects.

The above description is intended to be illustrative, and notrestrictive. For example, the above-described examples (or one or moreaspects thereof) may be used in combination with each other. Otherembodiments can be used, such as by one of ordinary skill in the artupon reviewing the above description. The Abstract is provided to complywith 37 C.F.R. §1.72(b), to allow the reader to quickly ascertain thenature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with theunderstanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scopeor meaning of the claims. Also, in the above Detailed Description,various features may be grouped together to streamline the disclosure.This should not be interpreted as intending that an unclaimed disclosedfeature is essential to any claim. Rather, inventive subject matter maylie in less than all features of a particular disclosed embodiment.Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into the DetailedDescription, with each claim standing on its own as a separateembodiment, and it is contemplated that such embodiments can be combinedwith each other in various combinations or permutations. The scope ofthe invention should be determined with reference to the appendedclaims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claimsare entitled.

The following statements of the invention are intended to describepossible elements or features of the invention according to theforegoing description given in the specification.

Statements Describing Aspects of the Invention

1. A method of reducing a microbial infection at a site in an animal inneed thereof, comprising locally administering to the site an effectiveamount of a composition comprising particles having a diameter of about1.0 nm to about 100 μm, to thereby reduce microbial infection at thesite in the animal;

-   -   wherein the particles inhibit bacteria from adhering to or        colonizing the site; and    -   wherein the composition is configured to biodegrade after        activating macrophages without substantial activation of        neutrophils.

2. The method of statement 1, wherein the composition coats or isadministered with an implant or implantation device.

3. The method of statement 1 or 2, wherein the particles in thecomposition comprise an inorganic material, organic material, magneticmaterial, radioactive material, or a combination thereof.

4. The method of statement 3, wherein the inorganic material comprisesmetal, silica, alumina, titania, glass, ceramic, or a combinationthereof

5. The method of statement 4, wherein the glass comprises plain glass,precision glass, sieve calibration glass, high refraction index glass,hollow glass, dyed glass, or a combination thereof.

6. The method of statement 4, wherein the ceramic comprises zirconia orzirconium silicate.

7. The method of statement 3, wherein the organic material comprisespolymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, melamine, polylactide, or acombination thereof.

8. The method of statement 3, wherein the magnetic material alsocomprises silica, polystyrene, dextran, or a combination thereof.

9. The method of any of statements 1-8, wherein the particles furthercomprise a functional group.

10. The method of any of statements 1-9, wherein the particles furthercomprise a functional group selected from the group consisting of anamine, epoxy, carboxyl, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, fluorescentmaterial, and a combination thereof.

11. The method of any of statements 1-10, wherein at least one of theparticles is polystyrene.

12. The method of any of statements 1-11, wherein substantially all ofthe particles are adapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria; orwherein at least 70% of the particles are adapted or configured foradhesion to bacteria; or wherein at least 95% of the particles areadapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria.

13. The method of any of statements 1-12, wherein one or more particleshas a diameter falling in the range of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm; orwherein at least 70% of the particles have a diameter falling in therange of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm.

14. The method of any of statements 1-13, wherein at least 70% of theparticles have a shape that is substantially spherical, square,rectangular, planar, cuboidal, or a combination thereof

15. The method of any of statements 1-14, wherein at least 70% of theparticles are substantially smooth.

16. The method of any of statements 1-15, wherein at least 70% or atleast 95% of the particles have an average surface roughness greaterthan 0.2 microns.

17. The method of any of statements 1-16, wherein the composition isembedded or impregnated into a surface of an implant.

18. The method of any of statements 1-17, wherein the composition is acoating on at least one surface of an implant.

19. The method of statement 17 or 18, wherein the implant comprises asponge, bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh, valve,pacemaker, conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptive device,central line, pessary, tube, drain, trochar, plug, cerebrospinal fluiddrain, tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw,orthopedic appliance, bandage, suture or any other implantable medicaldevice.

20. The method of any of statements 17-19, wherein the implant isconfigured for implantation into bone.

21. The method of any of statements 17-19, wherein the implant isconfigured for implantation into a blood vessel.

22. The method of any of statements 17-19, wherein the implant isconfigured for implantation into a hernia, breast, bladder, anus,vagina, or penis.

23. The method of any of statements 1-22, wherein bacteria can adhere tothe particles.

24. The method of any of statements 1-23, wherein the composition is asingle layer coating on an implant.

25. The method of any of statements 1-24, wherein the composition is amultiple layer coating on an implant.

26. The method of any of statements 1-24, wherein the composition is amultiple layer coating on an implant and wherein one or more layers areconfigured to peel-off after administration.

27. The method statement 26, wherein the one or more layers peel-offover a time period of about 1 hour to about 1 week.

28. The method of statement 26 or 27, wherein the particle coating has 1to 10 layers.

29. The method of any of statements 1-28, wherein the composition is acoating on at least one surface of an implant and wherein a particle isreleased from the coating over a time period of about 1 hour to about 1week.

30. The method of statement 29, wherein the particles are released fromthe coating over a time period of about 72 hours.

31. The method of statement 29 or 30, wherein the particles are releasedfrom the coating over a time period of about 48 hours.

32. The method of any of statements 29-31, wherein the particles arereleased from the coating over a time period of about 24 hours.

33. The method of any of statements 29-32, wherein the particles arereleased from the coating over a time period of less than 24 hours.

34. The method of any of statements 1-33, wherein the compositionfurther comprises an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeutic agent, or a combinationthereof

35. The method of any of statements 1-34, wherein an anti-bacterialagent, an anti-fungal agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, anchemotherapeutic agent, or a combination thereof is released from thecomposition over time period of about 1 to about 72 hours.

36. The method of any of statements 1-34, wherein the compositioncomprises an antibacterial agent selected from the group consisting ofβ-lactams (including amoxicillin, ampicillin, bacampicillin,carbenicillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, methicillin,mezlocillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, penicillin G, penicillin V,piperacillin, pivampicillin, pivmecillinam, ticarcillin, sulbactam,tazobactam, clavulanate), cephalosporins (cefaclor, cefadroxil,cefamandole, cefazolin, cefdinir, cefditoren, cefepime, cefixime,cefonicid, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan, cefoxitin, cefpodoxime,cefprozil, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone,cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephapirin, cephradine),aminoglycosides (including gentamycin, streptomycin, amikacin,kanamycin, viomycin, capreomycin), ethionamide, prothionamide,cycloserine, dapsone, clofazimine, tetracyclines (tetracycline,doxycycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, minocyclinedemeclocycline), oxazolidinones (linezolid, eperezolid), metronidazole,rifabutin, isoniazonid, ethambutol or any combination thereof.

37. The method of any of statements 1-36, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of an antibacterial agent ranging from about0.01 mg per cm² to about 30 mg per cm² or greater.

38. The method of any of statements 1-37, wherein the compositioncomprises comprises an antifungal agent selected from the groupconsisting of amphotericin B, flucytosine, fluconazole, griseofulvin,miconazole nitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride, ketoconazole,itraconazole, undecylenic acid and chloroxylenol, ciclopirox,clotrimazole, butenafine hydrochloride, nystatin, naftifinehydrochloride, oxiconazole nitrate, selenium sulfide, econazole nitrate,terconazole, butoconazole nitrate, carbol-fuchsin, clioquinol,methylrosaniline chloride, sodium thiosulfate, sulconazole nitrate,terbinafine hydrochloride, tioconazole, tolnaftate, undecylenic acid andundecylenate salts (calcium undecylenate, copper undecylenate, zincundecylenate).

39. The method of any of statements 1-38, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of an antifungal agent ranging from about 0.01mg per cm² to about 30 mg per cm² or greater.

40. The method of any of statements 1-39, wherein the compositioncomprises a chemotherapeutic agent selected from the group consisting ofbusulfan, hexamethylmelamine, thiotepa, cyclophosphamide,mechlorethamine, uramustine, melphalan, chlorambucil, carmustine,streptozocin, dacarbazine, temozolomide, cisplatin, carboplatin,ifosfamide, methotrexate, azathioprine, mercaptopurine, fludarabine,5-fluorouracil, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine, vindesine,paclitaxel, docetaxel, podophyllotoxin, irinotecan, topotecan,amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide, dactinomycin,doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, bleomycin, plicamycin, mitomycin,or a combination thereof.

41. The method of any of statements 1-40, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent ranging from about0.01 mg per cm² to about 30 mg per cm² or greater.

42. The method of any of statements 1-41, wherein the compositioncomprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of acytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, a peptide, a recombinant DNA, or acombination thereof

43. The method of any of statements 1-42, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a cytokine selected from the group consisting of IL-1,IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15,IL-17, IL-18, IL-22, IL-23, IL-35, type I interferon, type IIinterferon, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, transforming growth facor-beta,granulocyte colony stimulating factor, granulocyte-monocyte colonystimulating factor, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, or a combinationthereof.

44. The method of any of statements 1-43, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a chemokine selected from the group consisting of CCchemokines, CXC chemokines, C chemokines, CX₃C chemokines, or acombination thereof.

45. The method of any of statements 1-44, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of a chemokine ranging from about 0.01 mg percm² to about 30 mg per cm² or greater.

46. The method of any of statements 1-45, wherein the method reducesbacterial titer at a site of an implant or implantation device.

47. An implant comprising:

-   -   one or more surfaces configured for implantation into an animal;        and    -   a coating on the one or more surfaces, where the coating        comprises a composition comprising particles with a diameter of        about 1.0 nm to about 100 μm.

48. The implant of statement 47, wherein each particle comprises aninorganic material, organic material, magnetic material, radioactivematerial or a combination thereof.

49. The implant of statement 47 or 48, wherein the particles comprise aninorganic material selected from the group consisting of metal, silica,alumina, titania, glass, ceramic, and a combination thereof

50. The implant of any of statements 47-49, wherein the particlescomprise glass selected from the group consisting of plain glass,precision glass, sieve calibration glass, high refraction index glass,hollow glass, dyed glass, and a combination thereof

51. The implant of statement 49, wherein the ceramic comprises zirconiaor zirconium silicate.

52. The implant of statement 48, wherein the organic material isselected from the group consisting of polymethylmethacrylate,polystyrene, melamine, polylactide, and a combination thereof.

53. The implant of statement 48, wherein the magnetic material alsocomprises silica, polystyrene, dextran, or a combination thereof.

54. The implant of any of statements 47-53, further comprising afunctional group selected from the group consisting of an amine, epoxy,carboxyl, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, fluorescent material, or acombination thereof.

55. The implant of any of statements 47-54, wherein at least 50% of theparticles comprise polystyrene; or wherein at least 90% of the particlescomprise polystyrene.

56. The implant of any of statements 47-55, wherein substantially all ofthe particles are adapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria; orwherein at least 70% of the particles are adapted or configured foradhesion to bacteria; or wherein at least 95% of the particles areadapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria.

57. The implant of any of statements 47-56, wherein one or moreparticles has a diameter falling in the range of about 100 nm to about0.5 μm; or wherein at least 70% of the particles have a diameter fallingin the range of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm.

58. The implant of any of statements 47-57, wherein at least 70% of theparticles have a shape that is substantially spherical, square,rectangular, planar, cuboidal, or a combination thereof.

59. The implant of any of statements 47-58, wherein at least 70% of theparticles are substantially smooth.

60. The implant of any of statements 47-59 wherein at least 70% or atleast 95% of the particles have an average surface roughness greaterthan 0.2 microns.

61. The implant of any of statements 47-60, wherein bacteria can adhereto the particles.

62. The implant of any of statements 47-61, wherein a coating isembedded or impregnated into one or more surfaces of the implant.

63. The implant of any of statements 47-62, wherein the coatingcomprises a single layer.

64. The implant of any of statements 47-63, wherein the coatingcomprises multiple layers.

65. The implant of any of statements 47-64, wherein the coatingcomprises multiple layers, and one or more of the layers are configuredto peel-off after implantation of the implant.

66. The implant statement 65, wherein the one or more layers areconfigured to peel-off over a time period of about 1 hour to about 1week.

67. The implant of any of statements 47-65, wherein the coatingcomprises about 1 to 10 layers.

68. The implant of any of statements 47-67, wherein the particles arereleased from the coating over a time period of about 1 hour to about 1week.

69. The implant of any of statements 47-68, wherein the coating furthercomprises an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeutic agent, or a combinationthereof

70. The implant of any of statements 47-69, wherein the coating furthercomprises an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeutic agent, or a combinationthereof that is released from the coating over time period of about 1 toabout 72 hours.

71. The implant of any of statements 47-70, wherein the coating furthercomprises an antibacterial agent selected from the group consisting ofβ-lactams (including amoxicillin, ampicillin, bacampicillin,carbenicillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, methicillin,mezlocillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, penicillin G, penicillin V,piperacillin, pivampicillin, pivmecillinam, ticarcillin, sulbactam,tazobactam, clavulanate), cephalosporins (cefaclor, cefadroxil,cefamandole, cefazolin, cefdinir, cefditoren, cefepime, cefixime,cefonicid, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan, cefoxitin, cefpodoxime,cefprozil, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone,cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephapirin, cephradine),aminoglycosides (including gentamycin, streptomycin, amikacin,kanamycin, viomycin, capreomycin), ethionamide, prothionamide,cycloserine, dapsone, clofazimine, tetracyclines (tetracycline,doxycycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, minocyclinedemeclocycline), oxazolidinones (linezolid, eperezolid), metronidazole,rifabutin, isoniazonid, ethambutol or any combination thereof.

72. The implant of any of statements 47-71, wherein the coatingcomprises an antibacterial agent concentration of about 0.01 mg per cm²to about 10 mg per cm².

73. The implant of any of statements 47-72, wherein the coatingcomprises an antifungal agent selected from the group consisting ofamphotericin B, flucytosine, fluconazole, griseofulvin, miconazolenitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride, ketoconazole, itraconazole,undecylenic acid and chloroxylenol, ciclopirox, clotrimazole, butenafinehydrochloride, nystatin, naftifine hydrochloride, oxiconazole nitrate,selenium sulfide, econazole nitrate, terconazole, butoconazole nitrate,carbol-fuchsin, clioquinol, methylrosaniline chloride, sodiumthiosulfate, sulconazole nitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride,tioconazole, tolnaftate, undecylenic acid and undecylenate salts(calcium undecylenate, copper undecylenate, zinc undecylenate).

74. The implant of any of statements 47-73, wherein the coatingcomprises an antifungal agent concentration of about 0.01 mg per cm² toabout 10 mg per cm².

75. The implant of any of statements 47-74, wherein the coatingcomprises a chemotherapeutic agent selected from the group consisting ofbusulfan, hexamethylmelamine, thiotepa, cyclophosphamide,mechlorethamine, uramustine, melphalan, chlorambucil, carmustine,streptozocin, dacarbazine, temozolomide, cisplatin, carboplatin,ifosfamide, methotrexate, azathioprine, mercaptopurine, fludarabine,5-fluorouracil, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine, vindesine,paclitaxel, docetaxel, podophyllotoxin, irinotecan, topotecan,amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide, dactinomycin,doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, bleomycin, plicamycin, mitomycin,or a combination thereof.

76. The implant of any of statements 47-75, wherein the coating furthercomprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of acytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, a peptide, a recombinant DNA, or acombination thereof

77. The implant of any of statements 47-76, wherein the coating furthercomprises a cytokine selected from the group consisting of IL-1, IL-2,IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15, IL-17,IL-18, IL-22, IL-23, IL-35, type I interferon, type II interferon, tumornecrosis factor-alpha, transforming growth facor-beta, granulocytecolony stimulating factor, granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulatingfactor, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, or a combination thereof.

78. The implant of any of statements 47-77, wherein the coating furthercomprises a chemokine selected from the group consisting of CCchemokines, CXC chemokines, C chemokines, CX₃C chemokines, or acombination thereof.

79. The implant of any of statements 47-78, wherein the implantcomprises a sponge, bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh,valve, pacemaker, conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptivedevice, central line, pessary, tube, drain, trochar, plug, cerebrospinalfluid drain, tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw,orthopedic appliance, bandage, suture or a combination thereof.

80. The implant of any of statements 47-79, wherein the implant isconfigured for implantation into bone.

81. The implant of any of statements 47-80, wherein the implant isconfigured for implantation into a blood vessel.

82. The implant of any of statements 47-81, wherein the implant isconfigured for implantation into a hernia, breast, bladder, anus,vagina, or penis.

83. A method of manufacturing an implant or implantation devicecomprising coating the implant or the implantation device with acomposition comprising particles having a diameter of about 1.0 nm toabout 100 μm.

84. The method of statement 83, wherein the particles inhibit bacteriafrom adhering to or colonizing the site.

85. The method of statement 83 or 84, wherein the composition isconfigured to biodegrade after activating macrophages withoutsubstantial activation of neutrophils.

86. The method of any of statements 83-85, wherein the compositioncomprises an inorganic material, organic material, magnetic material,radioactive material, or a combination thereof.

87. The method of any of statements 83-86, wherein the compositioncomprises an inorganic material selected from the group consisting ofmetal, silica, alumina, titania, glass, ceramic, and a combinationthereof.

88. The method of statement 83, wherein the glass is selected from thegroup consisting of plain glass, precision glass, sieve calibrationglass, high refraction index glass, hollow glass, dyed glass, and acombination thereof.

89. The method of statement 87, wherein the ceramic further compriseszirconia or zirconium silicate.

90. The method of statement 86, wherein the organic material is selectedfrom the group consisting of polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene,melamine, polylactide, and a combination thereof.

91. The method of statement 86, wherein the magnetic material furthercomprises silica, polystyrene, dextran, or a combination thereof.

92. The method of any of statements 83-92, further comprising afunctional group selected from the group consisting of amine, epoxy,carboxyl, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, fluorescent material, or acombination thereof.

93. The method of any of statements 83-92, wherein at least 50% of theparticles comprise polystyrene; or wherein at least 90% of the particlescomprise polystyrene.

94. The method of any of statements 83-93, wherein substantially all ofthe particles are adapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria; orwherein at least 70% of the particles are adapted or configured foradhesion to bacteria; or wherein at least 95% of the particles areadapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria.

95. The method of any of statements 83-91, wherein one or more particleshas a diameter falling in the range of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm; orwherein at least 70% of the particles have a diameter falling in therange of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm.

96. The method of any of statements 83-95, wherein at least 70% of theparticles have a shape that is substantially spherical, square,rectangular, planar, cuboidal, or a combination thereof

97. The method of any of statements 83-96, wherein at least 70% of theparticles are substantially smooth.

98. The method of any of statements 83-97, wherein at least 70% or atleast 95% of the particles have an average surface roughness greaterthan 0.2 microns.

99. The method of any of statements 83-98, comprising embedding orimpregnating the composition into a surface of an implant.

100. The method of any of statements 83-99, wherein the implantcomprises a sponge, bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh,valve, pacemaker, conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptivedevice, central line, pessary, tube, drain, trochar, plug, cerebrospinalfluid drain, tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw,orthopedic appliance, bandage, suture or a combination thereof

101. The method of any of statements 83-100, wherein the implant or theimplantation device is configured for implantation into bone.

102. The method of any of statements 83-100, wherein the implant or theimplantation device is configured for implantation into a blood vessel.

103. The method of any of statements 83-100, wherein the implant or theimplantation device is configured for implantation into a hernia,breast, bladder, anus, vagina, or penis.

104. The method of any of statements 83-103, wherein bacteria can adhereto the particles.

105. The method of any of statements 83-104, comprising coating theimplant or the implantation device with a single layer of thecomposition.

106. The method of any of statements 83-105, comprising coating theimplant or the implantation device with multiple layers.

107. The method of any of statements 83-106 comprising coating theimplant or the implantation device with multiple layers, wherein one ormore layers are configured to peel-off after administration.

108. The method of statement 107, wherein the one or more layerspeel-off over a time period of about 1 hour to about 1 week.

109. The method of any of statements 83-108, comprising coating theimplant or the implantation device with 1 to 10 layers.

110. The method of any of statements 83-109, wherein composition isadapted or configured to release particles over a time period of about 1hour to about 1 week.

111. The method of any of statements 83-110, wherein composition isadapted or configured to release particles over a time period of about72 hours.

112. The method of any of statements 83-111, wherein composition isadapted or configured to release particles over a time period of about48 hours.

113. The method of any of statements 83-112, wherein composition isadapted or configured to release particles over a time period of about24 hours.

114. The method of any of statements 83-113, wherein the compositionfurther comprises an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeutic agent, or a combinationthereof.

115. The method of any of statements 83-114, wherein the composition isadapted or configured to release an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungalagent, an anti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeutic agent, or acombination thereof over about 1 to about 72 hours.

116. The method of any of statements 83-115, wherein the compositionfurther comprises an antibacterial agent selected from the groupconsisting of β-lactams (including amoxicillin, ampicillin,bacampicillin, carbenicillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin,flucloxacillin, methicillin, mezlocillin, nafcillin, oxacillin,penicillin G, penicillin V, piperacillin, pivampicillin, pivmecillinam,ticarcillin, sulbactam, tazobactam, clavulanate), cephalosporins(cefaclor, cefadroxil, cefamandole, cefazolin, cefdinir, cefditoren,cefepime, cefixime, cefonicid, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan,cefoxitin, cefpodoxime, cefprozil, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime,ceftriaxone, cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephapirin,cephradine), aminoglycosides (including gentamycin, streptomycin,amikacin, kanamycin, viomycin, capreomycin), ethionamide, prothionamide,cycloserine, dapsone, clofazimine, tetracyclines (tetracycline,doxycycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, minocyclinedemeclocycline), oxazolidinones (linezolid, eperezolid), metronidazole,rifabutin, isoniazonid, ethambutol or any combination thereof.

117. The method of any of statements 83-116, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a concentration of an antibacterial agent ranging fromabout 0.01 mg per cm² to about 10 mg per cm².

118. The method of any of statements 83-117, wherein the compositionfurther comprises an antifungal agent selected from the group consistingof amphotericin B, flucytosine, fluconazole, griseofulvin, miconazolenitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride, ketoconazole, itraconazole,undecylenic acid and chloroxylenol, ciclopirox, clotrimazole, butenafinehydrochloride, nystatin, naftifine hydrochloride, oxiconazole nitrate,selenium sulfide, econazole nitrate, terconazole, butoconazole nitrate,carbol-fuchsin, clioquinol, methylrosaniline chloride, sodiumthiosulfate, sulconazole nitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride,tioconazole, tolnaftate, undecylenic acid and undecylenate salts(calcium undecylenate, copper undecylenate, zinc undecylenate).

119. The method of any of statements 83-118, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of an antifungal agent ranging from about 0.01mg per cm² to about 10 mg per cm².

120. The method of any of statements 83-119, wherein the compositioncomprises a chemotherapeutic agent selected from the group consisting ofbusulfan, hexamethylmelamine, thiotepa, cyclophosphamide,mechlorethamine, uramustine, melphalan, chlorambucil, carmustine,streptozocin, dacarbazine, temozolomide, cisplatin, carboplatin,ifosfamide, methotrexate, azathioprine, mercaptopurine, fludarabine,5-fluorouracil, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine, vindesine,paclitaxel, docetaxel, podophyllotoxin, irinotecan, topotecan,amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide, dactinomycin,doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, bleomycin, plicamycin, mitomycin,or a combination thereof.

121. The method of any of statements 83-120, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent ranging from about0.01 mg per cm² to about 10 mg per cm².

122. The method of any of statements 83-121, wherein the compositioncomprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of acytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, a peptide, a recombinant DNA, or acombination thereof

123. The method of any of statements 83-122, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a cytokine selected from the group consisting of IL-1,IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15,IL-17, IL-18, IL-22, IL-23, IL-35, type I interferon, type IIinterferon, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, transforming growthfactor-beta, granulocyte colony stimulating factor, granulocyte-monocytecolony stimulating factor, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, or acombination thereof.

124. The method of any of statements 83-123, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a chemokine selected from the group consisting of CCchemokines, CXC chemokines, C chemokines, CX₃C chemokines, or acombination thereof.

125. The method of any of statements 83-124, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of a chemokine ranging from about 0.01 mg percm² to about 10 mg per cm².

126. The method of any of statements 83-125, wherein the compositionreduces bacterial titer at a site of an implant or implantation device.

127. The method of any of statements 83-126, wherein the compositionreduces bacterial titer at a site of an implant or implantation deviceby at least 50%, or by at least 70%, or by at least 80%, or by at least90%, or by at least 95%, or by at least 99%.

128. Use of a composition comprising particles with a diameter of about1.0 nm to about 100 μm for reducing a microbial infection at a site inan animal.

129. The use of statement 128, wherein the particles inhibit bacteriafrom adhering to or colonizing the site.

130. The use of statement 128 or 129, wherein the composition isconfigured to biodegrade after activating macrophages withoutsubstantial activation of neutrophils.

131. The use of any of statements 128-130, wherein the composition coatsor is administered with an implant or implantation device.

132. The use of any of statements 128-131, wherein the compositioncomprises inorganic material, organic material, magnetic material,radioactive material, or a combination thereof.

133. The use of statement 132, wherein the inorganic material comprisesmetal, silica, alumina, titania, glass, ceramic, or a combinationthereof

134. The use of statement 133, wherein the glass comprises plain glass,precision glass, sieve calibration glass, high refraction index glass,hollow glass, dyed glass, or a combination thereof.

135. The use of statement 134, wherein the ceramic further compriseszirconia or zirconium silicate.

136. The use of statement 132, wherein the organic material comprisespolymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, melamine, polylactide, or acombination thereof.

137. The use of statement 132, wherein the magnetic material furthercomprises silica, polystyrene, dextran, or a combination thereof.

138. The use of any of statements 128-137, further comprising afunctional group selected from the group consisting of an amine, epoxy,carboxyl, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, fluorescent material, or acombination thereof.

139. The use of any of statements 128-138, wherein at least one of theparticles is polystyrene.

140. The use of any of statements 128-139, wherein substantially all ofthe particles are adapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria; orwherein at least 70% of the particles are adapted or configured foradhesion to bacteria; or wherein at least 95% of the particles areadapted or configured for adhesion to bacteria.

141. The use of any of statements 128-140, wherein one or more particleshas a diameter falling in the range of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm; orwherein at least 70% of the particles have a diameter falling in therange of about 100 nm to about 0.5 μm.

142. The use of any of statements 128-141, wherein at least 70% of theparticles have a shape that is substantially spherical, square,rectangular, planar, cuboidal, or a combination thereof

143. The use of any of statements 128-142, wherein at least 70% of theparticles are substantially smooth.

144. The use of any of statements 128-143, wherein at least 70% or atleast 95% of the particles have an average surface roughness greaterthan 0.2 microns.

145. The use of any of statements 128-144, wherein the composition isembedded or impregnated into one or more surfaces of an implant orimplantation device.

146. The use of statement 145, wherein the implant or implantationdevice comprises a sponge, bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin,staple, mesh, valve, pacemaker, conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold,contraceptive device, central line, pessary, tube, drain, trochar, plug,cerebrospinal fluid drain, tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube,rod, screw, orthopedic appliance, bandage, suture or any otherimplantable medical device.

147. The use of statement 145 or 146, wherein the implant orimplantation device is configured for implantation into bone.

148. The use of statement 145 or 146, wherein the implant orimplantation device is configured for implantation into a blood vessel.

149. The use of statement 145 or 146, wherein the implant is configuredfor implantation into a hernia, breast, bladder, anus, vagina, or penis.

150. The use of any of statements 128-149, wherein bacteria can adhereto the particles.

151. The use of any of statements 128-150, wherein the composition iscoated onto an implant or implantation device in a single layer.

152. The use of any of statements 128-151, wherein the composition iscoated onto an implant or implantation device in multiple layers.

153. The use of any of statements 128-152, wherein the composition iscoated onto an implant or implantation device in multiple layers, andwherein one or more layers are configured to peel-off afteradministration.

154. The use of any of statements 128-153, wherein the composition iscoated onto an implant or implantation device in multiple layers, andwherein the one or more layers peel-off over a time period of about 1hour to about 1 week.

155. The use of any of statements 128-154, wherein the composition iscoated onto an implant or implantation device in 1 to 10 layers.

156. The use of any of statements 128-155, wherein a particle isreleased from the composition over a time period of about 1 hour toabout 1 week.

157. The use of any of statements 128-156, wherein the particles arereleased from the composition over a time period of about 72 hours.

158. The use of any of statements 128-157, wherein the particles arereleased from the composition over a time period of about 48 hours.

159. The use of any of statements 128-158, wherein the particles arereleased from the composition over a time period of about 24 hours.

160. The use of any of statements 128-159, wherein the particles arereleased from the composition over a time period of less than 24 hours.

161. The use of any of statements 128-160, wherein the compositionfurther comprises an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeutic agent, or a combinationthereof

162. The use of any of statements 128-161, wherein the compositionfurther comprises an anti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, ananti-inflammatory agent, a chemotherapeutic agent, or a combinationthereof is released from the coating over time period of about 1 toabout 72 hours.

163. The use of any of statements 128-162, wherein the compositioncomprises an antibacterial agent selected from the group consisting ofβ-lactams (including amoxicillin, ampicillin, bacampicillin,carbenicillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, methicillin,mezlocillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, penicillin G, penicillin V,piperacillin, pivampicillin, pivmecillinam, ticarcillin, sulbactam,tazobactam, clavulanate), cephalosporins (cefaclor, cefadroxil,cefamandole, cefazolin, cefdinir, cefditoren, cefepime, cefixime,cefonicid, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan, cefoxitin, cefpodoxime,cefprozil, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone,cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephapirin, cephradine),aminoglycosides (including gentamycin, streptomycin, amikacin,kanamycin, viomycin, capreomycin), ethionamide, prothionamide,cycloserine, dapsone, clofazimine, tetracyclines (tetracycline,doxycycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, minocyclinedemeclocycline), oxazolidinones (linezolid, eperezolid), metronidazole,rifabutin, isoniazonid, ethambutol or any combination thereof.

164. The use of any of statements 128-163, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of an antibacterial agent ranging from about0.01 mg per cm² to about 10 mg per cm².

165. The use of any of statements 128-164, wherein the compositioncomprises an antifungal agent selected from the group consisting ofamphotericin B, flucytosine, fluconazole, griseofulvin, miconazolenitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride, ketoconazole, itraconazole,undecylenic acid and chloroxylenol, ciclopirox, clotrimazole, butenafinehydrochloride, nystatin, naftifine hydrochloride, oxiconazole nitrate,selenium sulfide, econazole nitrate, terconazole, butoconazole nitrate,carbol-fuchsin, clioquinol, methylrosaniline chloride, sodiumthiosulfate, sulconazole nitrate, terbinafine hydrochloride,tioconazole, tolnaftate, undecylenic acid and undecylenate salts(calcium undecylenate, copper undecylenate, zinc undecylenate).

166. The use of any of statements 128-165, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of an antifungal agent ranging from about 0.01mg per cm² to about 10 mg per cm².

167. The use of any of statements 128-166, wherein the compositioncomprises a chemotherapeutic agent selected from the group consisting ofbusulfan, hexamethylmelamine, thiotepa, cyclophosphamide,mechlorethamine, uramustine, melphalan, chlorambucil, carmustine,streptozocin, dacarbazine, temozolomide, cisplatin, carboplatin,ifosfamide, methotrexate, azathioprine, mercaptopurine, fludarabine,5-fluorouracil, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine, vindesine,paclitaxel, docetaxel, podophyllotoxin, irinotecan, topotecan,amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide, dactinomycin,doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, bleomycin, plicamycin, mitomycin,or a combination thereof.

168. The use of any of statements 128-167, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent ranging from about0.01 mg per cm² to about 10 mg per cm².

169. The use of any of statements 128-168, wherein the compositioncomprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of acytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, a peptide, a recombinant DNA, or acombination thereof

170. The use of any of statements 128-169, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a cytokine selected from the group consisting of IL-1,IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15,IL-17, IL-18, IL-22, IL-23, IL-35, type I interferon, type IIinterferon, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, transforming growth facor-beta,granulocyte colony stimulating factor, granulocyte-monocyte colonystimulating factor, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, or a combinationthereof.

171. The use of any of statements 128-170, wherein the compositionfurther comprises a chemokine selected from the group consisting of CCchemokines, CXC chemokines, C chemokines, CX₃C chemokines, or acombination thereof.

172. The use of any of statements 128-171, wherein the compositioncomprises a concentration of a chemokine ranging from about 0.01 mg percm² to about 10 mg per cm².

173. The use of any of statements 128-172, wherein the use reducesbacterial titer at a site of an implant or implantation device.

1. A method of reducing or preventing a microbial infection at a site inan animal, the method comprising: locally administering to the site aneffective amount of a composition comprising particles having a diameterbetween about 1.0 nm and about 100 μm, to thereby reduce microbialinfection at the site in the animal, wherein the administration of theparticles causes a localized activation of the immune system at the siteof administration, and wherein the activation of the immune system dueto the administration of the particles is transitory, and wherein theactivation of the immune system due to the administration of theparticles is tunable, and wherein the activation of the immune systemdue to the administration of the particles is not systemic, and whereinthe composition is configured to biodegrade after activating macrophageswithout substantial activation of neutrophils.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein the composition coats or is administered with an implantabledevice.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles in thecomposition are selected from the group consisting of polystyrene,polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, melamine, polylactide, magneticmaterials, radioactive materials, and combinations thereof.
 4. Themethod of claim 1, wherein at least 70% of the particles are configuredto prevent bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation at the site.
 5. Themethod of claim 1, wherein at least 70% of the particles have a diameterbetween about 100 nm and about 0.5 μm.
 6. The method of claim 1, whereinat least 70% of the particles have a shape that is selected from thegroup consisting of substantially smooth, spherical, square,rectangular, planar, cuboidal, and combinations thereof.
 7. The methodof claim 1, wherein at least 70% of the particles have an averagesurface roughness greater than 0.2 microns.
 8. The method of claim 2,wherein the implantable device is selected from the group consisting ofa sponge, bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh, valve,pacemaker, conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptive device,central line, pessary, tube, drain, trocar, plug, cerebrospinal fluiddrain, tracheostomy tube, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw,orthopedic appliance, drug pumps, implantable cardiac monitors,implantable neurostimulators and any other implantable medical device.9. The method of claim 1, wherein the implantable device is configuredfor implantation into a region selected from the group consisting of abone, a blood vessel, a hernia, a breast, a bladder, an anus, a vagina,and a penis.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles areconfigured to prevent bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation at thesite.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises oneor more layers that coat an implantable device, and wherein one or morelayers are configured to peel-off over a time period between about 1hour and about 1 week after the implantable device is administered. 12.The method of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises acompound selected from the group consisting of an anti-bacterial agent,an anti-fungal agent, an anti-inflammatory agent, an chemotherapeuticagent, a cytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, a peptide, a recombinantDNA, and combinations thereof.
 13. The method of claim 1, whereinadministering the composition reduces bacterial titer at the site by atleast 50%.
 14. An implant comprising: one or more surfaces configuredfor implantation at a site on an animal; and a coating on the one ormore surfaces, wherein the coating comprises a particles having adiameter between about 1.0 nm and about 100 μm, and wherein theparticles are selected from the group consisting of polystyrene,polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, melamine, polylactide, magneticmaterials, radioactive materials, and combinations thereof. 15.(canceled)
 16. The implant of claim 14, wherein at least 70% of theparticles are adapted or configured to prevent bacterial adhesion andbiofilm formation at the site for adhesion to bacteria.
 17. The implantof claim 14, wherein at least 70% of the particles have a diameterbetween about 100 nm and about 0.5 μm.
 18. The implant of claim 14,wherein at least 70% of the particles have a shape that is selected fromthe group consisting of substantially smooth, spherical, square,rectangular, planar, cuboidal, and combinations thereof.
 19. The implantof claim 14, wherein at least 70% of the particles have an averagesurface roughness greater than 0.2 microns.
 20. The implant of claim 14,wherein the implant is selected from the group consisting of a sponge,bandage, suture, catheter, stent, pin, staple, mesh, valve, pacemaker,conduit, cannula, appliance, scaffold, contraceptive device, centralline, pessary, tube, drain, trocar, plug, cerebrospinal fluid drain,tracheostomy, endotracheal tube, chest tube, rod, screw, orthopedicappliance, drug pumps, implantable cardiac monitors, implantableneurostimulators and any other implantable medical device.
 21. Theimplant of claim 14, wherein the implant is configured to be implantedinto bone, a blood vessel, a hernia, a breast, a bladder, an anus, avagina, or a penis.
 22. (canceled)
 23. The implant of claim 14, whereinthe particles are arranged in one or more layers that coat the implant,and wherein the one or more layers are configured to peel-off over atime period between about 1 hour and about 1 week after the implant isadministered.
 24. The implant of claim 14, wherein the coating furthercomprises a compound selected from the group consisting of ananti-bacterial agent, an anti-fungal agent, an anti-inflammatory agent,an chemotherapeutic agent, a cytokine, a chemokine, an antibody, apeptide, a recombinant DNA, and combinations thereof.
 25. The implant ofclaim 14, wherein the coating reduces bacterial titer at the site by atleast 50%.
 26. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition coats atleast a portion of the site.